MORALITY (SILA)

         In the Buddha's Teaching, morality or virtue (sila) is of vital importance, for only by laying a firm foundation of moral purity will one be able to proceed towards the attainment of the higher stages, namely, concentration (samadhi) and wisdom (panna) as it is said in the Visuddhimagga: "A wise man, after establishing well in virtue, develops consciousness and understanding". An aspirant therefore specially needs purity of body (action), purity of speech and purity of mind. In the Text, it is said that a person has been perfected with sila when he does not violate actions of body and of speech (sila-sampada).

         Evil in fact is usually done by way of actions through the door of body or speech or mind; reversely, good is also done in the same manner. Why do we commit sin or do evil? In reality, it is not because of outside circumstances, nor due to a force existing apart from ourselves, but the unwholesome way in which we conduct ourselves in body, speech and mind, and all this has its roots in our mental processes, collectively called 'mind', as the Buddha taught in the Dhammapada:

        "Mind is the forerunner of all mental states. Mind is their chief and they are mind-made. If one speaks or acts with an impure mind, then suffering follows one even as the wheel follows the hoof of the ox that draws a cart. If one speaks or acts with a pure mind, then happiness follows one even as the shadow that never departs from one " (verse No. 1)

         Here, suffering consequently follows one because of one's evil deeds, where as happiness also follows one by virtue of one's own deeds. In this respect, the main task in gaining happiness and dispelling suffering is to avoid evil deeds (varitta sila) and do good moral deeds (caritta sila), as prescribed by the Buddha. Such a behaviour is called moral conduct of a man in Buddhism.

         Classification of Sila

         It is called sila in the sense of composing. The term 'sila' includes other similar terms, such as, volition (cetana). mental factor (cetasikam). restraint (somvavaro) and non-transgression (avitikkamo).

         Here, composing means non-inconsistency of bodily and verbal actions, or serving as a foundation of wholesome states.

         The characteristic of sila (lakkhana) is composing: its function (rasa) has a double sense: action to stop misconduct and achievement as the quality of blamelessness: it is manifestation (paccutthana) is a pure state in all actions: and its proximate cause (padatthana) is a combination of shame and conscience.

         Importance of Morality

         As moral conduct or virtue (sila) is a practice to restrain the unwholesome acts of body and speech, when a person is free from any son of bodily and verbal misconduct, he is said to have kept or observed sila properly. In brief, that which is restraint from all vicious and sinful acts or evil is called sila. A good moral conduct is therefore the very foundation of progress towards enlightenment or supreme wisdom, which means real peace and happiness in a man's life.

         Without ethical principles of moral conduct, man normally descends to an animal level where there is no compassion and love, no tolerance and reasoning intellect, and no moral restraint in thoughts, words and deeds. Without moral character or restraint, any man or society or race or nation, in any place or home or town or country must, apparently, be engrossed some way or other with some kind of anguish arising from insecurity, instability, disunity, turmoils, conflicts, fights, battles and even great wars.

         The moral precepts in Buddhism are in no sense commandments for no one has commanded that one should keep them; the Buddha only advised or admonished us for our own happiness and for that of others that we should observe certain rules of morality (sila). For instance, whoever follows the moral precepts laid down by the Buddha has assuredly experienced a happy state of life; contrarily, whoever can't observe them will certainly find himself in a state of misery.

         As Buddhists recognize no Supreme Being or God, there also cannot be commandments for their moral purity. They believe that moral purity can only be gained by the actual practice of restraint by oneself, not to violate one's moral precepts bodily, verbally or mentally. Moral precepts are kept for the sake of happiness of man. Happiness of course comes not only from maintaining a good standard of morality in his life, but also as the result of skilful actions in past existences.

         As the moral principles taught by the Buddha are universal for all men at all times, the happiness or misery of man therefore depends on himself, how he can or cannot abide by the rules of moral discipline that should be kept by a moral person. Unless a basis of uprightness in moral matters has been made secured, it is impossible to realize the Supramundane Wisdom and so Freedom.

         Obviously enough, a moral person is very worthy and beneficial for himself as well as for others, whereas an immoral person is quite dangerous and harmful to himself and to others as well. Besides, after his death he is most likely to go down even to the lower miserable abodes (apaya) because of his own misdeeds. Therefore, in order to raise the moral standard of human beings from their beastly nature, the Compassionate Buddha laid down moral principles which are quite applicable to each and every man in the universe.

         They are excellent in the beginning, excellent in the middle and excellent in the end. They also promote human welfare and fair and right co-operation in every sphere of life. For these reasons moral conduct is indispensable for every man in endeavouring to learn, to appreciate to understand and to practise or follow the principles of sila as best as he can.

         Here, everybody basically should or must learn to distinguish the right from the wrong, the good from the evil, the wholesome from unwholesome, the noble from the mean, the profitable from the unprofitable, the fair from the unfair, the just from the unjust, and so on. If a person thus avoids the evils of the negative side, follows the good moral principles of the positive side, he will live a happy life free from dangers, anxieties, worries, sorrows and sufferings, etc., and consequently enjoy a secure and peaceful life satisfactorily and delightfully. Such being the case, the moral life is an essential minimal requirement of every man for living happily for himself and for others as well.

         Moral purity is so important for a man in the world that no one can measure the beneficial advantages of virtue, as mentioned in the Visuddhimagga and Buddhavamsa Commentaries:

         'Moral purity is a virtuous mans conduct (sila) which is incomparable in the world; there is no other thing like the adornment of morality, or like the scent of morality or like morality that can dispel the drift (if defilement, or like morality that can appease burning sorrows, or like morality that can make one famous amongst men or like the stair of morality that can help you to climb to celestial abodes or like the door of morality through which you can enter the city of Nibbana.

         Categories of Sila

         In Buddhism the moral precepts are roughly divided into three categories: namely, moral precepts for 1, laymen, 2, novices (samanera) and 3, monks (Bhikkhu) and nuns (Bhikkhuni). An average layman usually observes the Five Precepts ( Pancasila ) or the Eight Precepts (atthanga sila)or the Eight Precepts of livelihood ( aji vatthamaka sila), or the Nine Precept (navanga sila.) Forthermore a lay Buddhist should also abstain from the Ten Evil Actions, and cultivate the Ten Meritorious Deeds (punnakhiya) and the Ten Perfections (parami). A novice (samanera) has to observe the Ten Precepts adhering to 75 Rules of Training (sekhiya). A Buddhist monk (Bhikkhu) has to observe 227 Rules of Discipline (patimokkha) in general or 91,805,306,000 minute rules all in detail while a Buddhist nun (Bhikkhuni) observes 311 Rules of discipline in general.

         Purification of Virtue

         In Buddhism there are three grades of defilement: namely, 1. the grade of transgression or gross degree of defilement (vitikkama kilesa). 2. the grade of obsession or the intermediary degree of defilement (pariyutthana kilesa. Just as there are three grades of defilement, so there are also three stages of knowledge of mental development in order to object and cast off the defilements.

         In the Dhammapada the Buddha taught thus: "Just as a tree with firm roots undestroyed, though its branches or leaves are cut down springs up again, even so while the latent craving is not rooted out this misery springs up again and again". (V.338)

         Here the first grade, that of transgression similar to branches or leaves, can only be suppressed and dispelled by moral conduct or virtue (sila): the second grade, that of obsession like the trunk, by concentration (samadhi) and the third grade, that of latent tendency like roots, by wisdom (panna). I

         As a first step, the practitioner is therefore to abstain from all vicious and sinful deeds, and to be perfect and well-established in his moral purity. This is called the purification of virtue (silavisuddhi) which actually means good morality and pure conduct in one's deeds. As a matter of fact, moral purity is so vitally important for one that it is indispensable, and therefore the Buddha emphatically taught about this virtue in the Dhammapada:

        A. "Of little account is the fragrance of rosebay (Tagara) or sandal, but the fragrance of virtue which pervades even amongst the gods is supreme (V56)

        B. Though one should live a hundred years immoral and uncontrolled, yet better indeed is a single day's life of one who is moral and meditative. (V.110)

        C. Who is perfect in virtue and insight, is established in the Dhamma has realized the Truth and fulfils his own duties, people do hold him dear. (V.217)

        D. He who is full of faith in virtue, possessed of fame and wealth, is honoured everywhere, in whatever land he travels. (V.303)

        E. Happy is virtue till old age." (V.333)

         The Buddha also taught in the Majjhima Nikaya. "If a Bhikkhu should wish, 'May I be dear to my fellows in the life of purity and loved by them, held in respect and honoured by them,' let him perfect the virtues "

         The thoroughbred man (Buddha) is rare; he is not born everywhere. Where that wise man is born that family attains happiness.

        Dhammapada - V.193

MORAL VIRTUE (SILA)

         With reference to benefits of sila, the Visuddhimagga and Buddha-vamsa Commentaries describe as follows;

         "Maintain the Rules of Conduct pure, renouncing life if there be need, rather than break virtue's restraint, by the World's Refuge (lokantha) decreed."

         "There is no footing without virtue (sila) of clansmen in the Buddha's dispensation and so who can say to limit benefits of sila?

         "There are five benefits of a virtuous man in perfection of virtue, they are: 1. one who is virtuous, possessed of virtue, comes into a large fortune as a consequence of diligence: 2. a fair name is spread abroad. 3. he enters an assembly without fear or hesitation; 4. he dies unconfused. and 5. on the breaking of his body he reappears in a happy destiny."

         "There is no other thing like virtue (sila) that can provide one support, firmstand, object, shelter, refuge, destiny and reliance for the happiness in this world and in the next worlds as well."

         Advice of All Buddhas

         Moreover the most famous verse which the Buddha taught is the summary of the whole teaching. That is, "Sabba papassa akaranam", which means not to commit any evil or sinful act. This is the real foundation of moral purity. Hence, as for a lay Buddhist, the adherence to the Five Precepts is an essential minimum requirement for daily practice. The Five Precepts are: to abstain 1. from killing any living being, 2. from stealing, 3. from sexual misconduct, 4. from telling lies and 5. from intoxicating drinks or drugs.

         The Fivefold Precept is so commonly concerned with each and every layman for the welfare of himself as well as for others that it must be observed not only by Buddhists, but also by the followers of other faiths or religions, who are aware of the fact that the precepts are in accord with the real basic moral rules of man and the foremost essentials for man's pure life. Because the Fivefold Precept should ever be observed by all laymen or householders (gahattha sila), it should be observed by laymen with great esteem (garudhamma sila), it is ever delighted in by the Noble Ones or permanently observed without a slight break by the Noble Ones (Ariyakanta sila).

         Therefore we should all observe the moral precepts strictly and perfectly They must be untorn, unrent, unblotched and unmottled, as they are free from the slave of craving, praised by the wise, unadhered to by means of craving and wrong view and conducive to access of concentration.

         With reference to the strict observance of sila the Visuddhimagga Commentary indicates the similes: "As a hen guards her eggs, or as a Yak her tail, or like a mother to a darling child, like a one-eyed man to the only eye, so you who are engaged with your virtue to protect, must be prudent at all times and ever scrupulous."

         Here we should follow the example of an Elder (Thera). The robbers in the Mhavattani forest bound an Elder with black creepers and made him lie down and left him. While he lay there thus for seven days helpless and alone, he practised insight meditation all the time and as a result, reaching the fruition of a Non-Returner, he died there and was reborn in the Brahma world.

         Moreover, another classical story illustrating the Perfection of Virtue is that of Bhuridatta, the king of serpent-men of great powers. Vowing upon one Observance Day to keep the Eight Precepts, he lay down by an anthill in his serpent form. A snake-catcher seeing his great size and beauty captured and maltreated him. Even though one glance of his would have sufficient to set fire his tormentor to ashes, he bore the pains and fixed his mind upon the pure observance of the precepts. The Naga-king Bhuridatta had thus completed his dedication in the perfection of virtue.

         Classes of Virtue

         There are five classes of virtue (sila) or restraint (samvara). They are, the virtue 1. of abstinence from evils (virati sila), 2 of effort (viriya sila), 3. of patience (khanti sila), 4. of mindfulness (sati sila) and 5. of wisdom (panna sila).

         The volition for the abstinence from evil deeds and adherence to the principles of Right Action (sammakammanta). Right Speech (sammacvaca) and Right Livelihood (sammaajiva) is called morality of abstinence (virati sila). The effort put forth by a practitioner for avoidance of evil deeds is called morality of effort ( viriya sila). The practitioner has kept moral precepts with patience whatever circumstances may happen to him and such a restraint is called morality of patience (khanti sila) he tries to abstain from evil deeds with his keen mindfulness and such is called morality of mindfulness (sati sila.) He avoids evil deeds by means of insight knowledge and so it is called morality of wisdom (panna sila) or restraint by insight knowledge (nanasanvara).

         The moral restraint may indeed guard against evil deeds. words and thoughts. So before any action, one's volition or intention (cetana) must be pure and clean in the right path. And hence these disciplines of restraint are quite applicable to our day to day physical life as well as to the spiritual one. It is really a basic work of life to refrain from evils towards the path of spiritual progress of a human being.

         Another aspect of restraint is to abstain from the Ten Unwholesome Actions or Immoral Deeds (akusala kamma patha.) As regards bodily actions (kayakamma). what one has to abstain from are killing any living being, stealing and unlawful sexual misconduct as they are commitments of transgressing stage and that of grave offence. In the sphere of verbal actions (vacikamma) one should avoid lying, slandering, harsh speech and frivolous talk since they destroy ethical progress, peace and happiness of a man. Then, more significantly, we all should try to control and eradicate three wrong mental actions (manokamma) which comprise of covetousness. ill-will and wrong view. They too are spiritually unwholesome since they are very hard to get rid of them from one's mind.

         It is not really enough for the utter purification of Sila: to merely avoid the Ten Unwholesome Actions. One must also strive to acquire merit as best as one can, by doing the Ten Meritorious Deeds (punnakiriya) which means cultivation of good things (kusalassupasampada). They are alms-giving, morally, mental development, reverence, service, sharing merit with others, rejoicing in others' merits, hearing the doctrine and straightening of one's view or confidence in the Triple Gems: and furthermore, one has to dedicatedly fulfil the Ten Perfections (parami). namely, alms-giving or generosity, morality or good conduct, renunciation, wisdom, energy or perseverance, patience, truthfulness, determination, loving-kindness and equanimity. Then only a person of perfect virtue can rightly ascend to the Path and Fruition (Magga-phala) higher and higher till he attains the Supreme Peace and Happiness of Nibbana (santisukha)

MENTAL DEVELOPMENT (BHAVANA)

         In Buddhism, mental development, bhavana is of utmost importance, because without bhavana one cannot discipline or develop one's mind. If so, one can never attain even a stage of concentration (samadhi); in consequence, one would certainly find it very hard to see things as they really are. Therefore, in order to attain supreme wisdom the practice of Buddhism, in actuality, wholly concerns one with the inner realm; i.e., maturity or purity of mind through mental development or meditation.

         As for man, who is in nature composed of mind and body, mind is the leading factor that guides him to perform either good or bad deeds, bodily, verbally and mentally. Regarding this, the Buddha taught in the Dhammapada, "Mind is the forerunner of all mental states; mind is their chief and they are mind-made".' So, in order to develop one's mind, to mature one's inner realm or to attain the higher mental states, mental development or cultivation (bhavana) is indispensable for all individuals at all times.

Meaning of Bhavana

         There are several references for the meaning of bhavana. "Bhavati bhavayati cati bhavo" means to make one grow or develop time-and-again one's inner realm. Bhavana thus means to make one concentrate, contemplate or meditate for one's mental development.

         In other words, "Bhaviyati vuddhiyati ti bhavana ", means to make one grow or mature. Moreover, bhavana in another sense is "Bhaveti kusaledhmame asevati vaddheti etayati bhavana" - that is, it is called bhavana because it makes one practise or hold fast to the wholesome states. Furthermore, bhavana means "Bhavetabbati bhavana" - that it makes or causes one's inner realm to grow or develop. In other words, it is also mentioned that it is called bhavana because "Bhventiva cittasantanam etahi ti bhavana" - it causes the process of the growth of One's mind by means of concentration and wisdom.

         In a general way, bhavana is of two kinds: (1) samatha bhavana, which can quell one's hindrances, defilements or rude mental biases; and (2) vipassana bhavana, which meditates time and again on the nature of impermanence, suffering and insubstantiality of all mental and physical phenomena.

         There are also two levels of bhavana: (1) developing the mundane level of morality, concentration and wisdom in one's mind (lokiyabhavana); and (2) developing the supramundane level of morality, concentration and wisdom (lokuttarabhavana) concern only with the consciousness of the Path and Fruition - i.e., the stage after the attainment of Ariyahood.

         Moreover, there are four categories of bhavana namely,

         (1) practising or concentrating on bodily actions - i.e., right action and right livelihood, which is called the mental development of body (kaya-bhavana); (2) practising the moral precepts - i.e., right speech and right effort, which is the mental development of virtue (sila bhavana); (3) concentration on mental actions - i.e., right intention and right concentration, which is the development of mind (cittabhavana); and (4) meditating on insight knowledge - i.e., right understanding and right mindfulness, which are the development of wisdom (pannabhavana).

         In this respect, development of morality or virtue is the beginning, development of mind is the middle, and development of wisdom is the culmination of practice.'

Nature of Mind

         The human mind is inherently ever defiled with corrupting agents (kilesa) such as greed (lobha), hatred (dosa), delusion (moha), pride (mana), wrong view (ditthi) and so on. These latent impure forces in their original nature arise simply from negligence or heedlessness; that is to say, they arise from lack of mindfulness on reality, at the point of impact between eye and visible objects, hearing and sounds, nose and odour, tongue and flavours, body and touch and mind and mental objects.

         In other words, each of these defilements arises in its respective turn as the case may be, "just as the rain leaks through the roof of a poorly thatched house, even so does passion penetrate an undeveloped mind. But on the contrary, just as the rain cannot penetrate a well- thatched house, even so passion cannot penetrate a well-developed mind" These impure mental states always appear unnoticed in the absence of mental awareness or meditative mindfulness, through eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and mind. The defilements are certain to arise whenever there is a chance for seeing, hearing, and so on. They will persist until and unless we curb and reject them by means of the practice of concentration (samatha) and insight meditation(vipassana).

         Concentration and tranquillity of mind can dispel craving (tanha), whereas insight meditation can eliminate ignorance (avijja). In other words, the power of concentration alone can control the restless mind and release it from the hindrances of evil thoughts (nivarana), such as, sensual desire, ill-will, sloth and torpor, restlessness, worry and doubt. Likewise, the power of insight meditation causes one's mind to attain wisdom or enlightenment, thereby dispelling ignorance.

         The Buddha said in the Majjhima Nikaya that one should apply oneself to the development of concentration and insight meditation in order to dispel craving and ignorance, the very roots of defilements in every human being, say in all persons who have not yet reached the highest stage of the Noble One (Arahanta Ariya). Truly, so long as we are overwhelmed by these two origins of life-creative force, we can by no means rightly see, hear, smell, taste, touch and think of things as they really are, as a consequence, we fall victim endlessly to the domain of defilements.

Control of the Mind

         For control of one's mind bhavana is of basic and vital importance. Without it the mind is uncontrollable as it flits about from one object to another. It is the mind that creates troubles, difficulties or problems and sufferings that confront men and women throughout samsara (cycle of birth and death). Control of the mind is the most difficult task for a person because the mind is usually delighted by evil thoughts rather than good ones.

         The mind, in its intrinsic nature, is the most powerful phenomenon and so the world or individual is led and attracted by it. It is only because of the mind that all beings are swayed to its domain or sovereignty. Each and everyone is therefore dominated by the mind that guides him as his master. It is only the mind that makes one defiled or pure, just as water in the form of mud soils and its pure form cleanses. The mind naturally exists in a state of desire or delight in evil polluting a person with impurities like greed, anger, delusion and so on. If the mind is thus impure with these defilements or corrupting agents, the body becomes impure as well.

         The mind is so swift in flitting about that the process of mental activity appears to be a substantial entity. It resembles electric light, which shines steadily but is produced by a varying current. Since the mind is transient in character, one cannot keep it completely calm and composed without proper meditation practice for mental development. Again, without a concentrated and tranquil mind, one will never discern anything as it truly is. Regarding this, the Buddha said that "Only a meditator with a concentrated mind can realize things in their true nature".

         With reference to the mind, the Buddha said in the Dhammapada:

         "The flickering, fickle mind difficult to guard, difficult to control - the wise person straightens it as a fletcher straightens an arrow."

         "The mind is hard to check, swift, flits wherever it likes, to control it is good. A controlled mind is conducive to happiness."

         "The mind is very hard to perceive, extremely subtle, flits wherever it likes. Let the wise man guard it; a guarded mind is conducive to happiness."

         "Faring afar, wandering alone, bodiless, lying in a cave (the heart) is the mind. Those who subdue it are freed from the bounds of Mara (passion)."

         Since the mind in its nature is never tranquil, as the Buddha elucidated in the above verses, bhavana is the only remedy for the diseases of mind. Therefore, in order to obtain quietude of mind, to quell hindrances and to eliminate other latent tendencies, one must positively develop the mind.

Fires of Passion

         Our sense portals are always being defiled, burning with fires of passion or corruptions whenever they are in contact with sensory objects. Yet most of us are ignorant of the fact that we are all victims of passion or corruptions. We usually observe our own being as a 'true self or 'true personality'. It is indeed extremely difficult for an ignorant worldling who is ever attached to a wrong view of Ego or Self (atta) to see or discern his true nature as being a composition of Mind-Matter phenomena. Consequently, because of his attachments or clingings (upadana), such a person is certain to fall into the miserable lower planes of existence (apaya) when he dies.

         So long as we are overwhelmed by the wrong-view of self- illusion, we can never ascend to the higher stages of a pure and holy life. We unnoticeably think that we are seeing correctly when we see a person or thing. Ordinary worldlings are only superficial or conventional shapes or forms, but not the real phenomena of Mind and Matter. As a result, they are under the gloomy influence of hallucinations (vipallasa), viz, wrong perception, wrong consciousness and wrong view, misinterpreting impermanence as permanence, pain as pleasure, non-self as true-self, and the detestation as delight. They thus waste their precious lifetime under the cloak of deep illusion.

Illusion of Ego or Self

         Now let us consider whether or not our assumption that everyone and everything we imagine as real in existence is accurate. For example, when a gentleman sees a lady, first, he takes for granted that she is real in existence and second, he thinks 'I see the lady' and may muse on the beautiful shape or appearance of her figure in detail. Thus he creates passionate thoughts for her; that is, he makes himself defiled with his lust or craving (raga or tanha).

         Neither the first nor the second view is right. In the first case, the lady whom he sees is but just an aggregate of physical and mental phenomena. Neither is the second right, because the thought 'I see the lady' is not true or correct as there is no real 'I'. Neither of them is a real personality or identity because in actuality neither the lady nor the 'I' is real in existence. The first is called wrong view (ditthi), and the second self-illusive (atta) or egoistic (sakkaya), and the combined words 'atta ditthi or sakkriya ditthi' mean wrong view of self or egoistic wrong view. This is the very fetter by which all beings are bound so tightly to the whirling wheel of samsara forever and ever.

         Thus, whenever people see, hear, smell, taste, touch or think of any person or thing, they create their own sufferings or torments out of their wrong view of 'self'. For instance, when people observe their loved ones with their attachments and view of 'self', their worries, grief, sorrows and so on are inextricably involved. Inspite of all this, they remain in awareness of the fact that all their anguish comes out of their own deluded minds.

         Such being the case, it is a clearly obvious fact that without bhavana, which can abate and eliminate one's defilements or corruptions, one can never obtain genuine happiness and real peace of mind. As the Buddha said in the Digha Nikaya, "With the development of morality (sila), concentration (samadhi) is of great benefit and value; again with the development of concentration, wisdom (panna) is of great benefit and value". Quite apparently, one cannot proceed to the stage of wisdom unless one's mind is concentrated, for the mind polluted with defilements finds it very difficult to see each thing as it is. That is the only reason why bhavana is essential to a person for the development of tranquillity of mind.

Three Grades of Defilement

         There are three grades of defilements: namely, (1) transgression, or the gross degree of defilement (vi tikkama kilesa); (2) Obsession, or the intermediate degree of defilement (pariyutthana kilesa): and (3) inherent tendency, or the instinctive degree of defilement (anusaya kilesa). Just as there are three grades of defilement, so there are also three stages of knowledge or mental development that arrest and dispose of these defilements.

         The first grade of defilement, that of transgression, can, be dispelled by moral conduct or virtue (sila); the second grade, that of obsession, by concentration (samadhi); and the third grade, that of latent tendency. by wisdom ('panna).

         The second and third stages are progressively more difficult. The stages of mental development are essential to us, as they are entirely concerned with mental maturity. Those of defilement can be expelled only by purifying or developing mind; i.e., by tranquillity of mind (samatha) and insight meditation (vipassana). Even after the concentration stage, by far the most difficult to root out are the latent tendencies that have been inherently concealed in each and every individual, composed of the elements of mind-matter phenomena for the long duration of samsara. The Buddha taught in the Dhammapada, "Just as a tree with firm roots undestroyed, though cut down springs up again, even so, while latent tendency of craving is not rooted out, this sorrow (rebirth) springs up again and again".

         The latent tendencies are, in fact, not to be seen with our naked eyes, but they do exist or arise when the necessary conditions are complete at the very moment of seeing, hearing, and so on, and then instantly pass away as is their nature. Just as a flame appears when a match-stick strikes against the matchbox, even so when one's sense organs are triggered by any object, defilements assuredly arise in the mind according as the degree of one's latent tendencies. As a result owing to the defilements of the mind, the physical body becomes defiled as well: thereby, we are denied liberation from the endless rounds of sufferings of samsara.

         In this respect, the root stage of passion is the most vital basis for each because one will become more and more defiled up to the stage of transgression unless one puts down and retards the very source of the initial stage of latent tendency. The importance of checking this latent evil state of mind is the only reason why bhavana, especially insight meditation (vipassana bhavana is essential and necessary for every human being. Thus the practitioner will well appreciate the value and benefit obtained just by the practice of bhavana advocated by the perfectly enlightened Buddha. In fact, by virtue of the actual practice of bhavana elucidated in the Buddha's Teaching, one will certainly enjoy happiness in life in this world and also experience the genuine peace and true, happiness of Nibbana of the Supramundane Enlightenment (santi-sukha).

The Advantages of Bhavana

         I have already mentioned earlier the two kinds of bhavana, samatha and vipassana: the former dispels gross defilements and the latter, through insight knowledge, enables one to realize things as they truly are, thereby dispelling all passionate attachments. The practitioners of both ways aspire primarily towards the realization of Nibbana. But the objectives of individuals tend to differ;- some take up samatha as the vehicle of liberation and they are called "samathayanika", whereas others take up vipassana as the vehicle of direct liberation and they are called "sukkhavipassaka", i.e., those who follow the pure and direct way of insight meditation. And those who take up samatha and then go on to vipassana are called "yuganaddha", i.e., those who practise both ways.

         These three kinds of practice are chosen according to ones own aim or ideal for enlightenment. For instance, those who wish to have mind-power or will-power use only the samatha method. They may attain at most the stages up to the highest ecstasy in the Brahma plane, but they still cannot escape from the rounds of samsara. A person who aspires to any one of the ideals of Individual Buddhahood or Fully Enlightened Buddhahood has to take up samatha before going on to vipassana. But one who wishes to attain the realization of Nibbana as a Noble One (ariya) in a shorter time, or fewer lives to come, takes up only vipassana bhavana.

Forty Objects of Samatha Bhavana

         The practice of samatha is a system of mental training which transforms the lower states of consciousness into higher ones. The practitioner has to take up any one of the forty objects of samatha practice described in the texts as follows:

         By samatha concentration, a practitioner (yogi) can only reach the highest ecstatic states of the Sphere of Form (rupa) and the Formless Sphere (arupa) and no more. When the power of his ecstasy or absorption expires, he might still be reborn in the lower, miserable planes of existence, such as that of animals or even lower beings. For this reason, samatha concentration is not secure, final and supreme enough for one who wishes to directly escape from the painful rounds of samsara. Yet samatha is still in fact very much beneficial as a firm foundation for insight meditation, for it can be conducive to tranquillity of mind. But by merely following the samatha way one cannot expect to obtain directly the Path, Fruition and Nibbana.

         Some seers and sages in ancient times actively sought for final release from this world of impermanence, suffering and insubstantiality. Their ideal was indeed lofty and their motive noble, but the methods they adopted were not in accordance with the ways to attain utter liberation. They thus failed to achieve the Supramundane Peace of Nibbana.

         Apparently, the Buddha appeared on this earth for the sole purpose of showing all beings the right noble path towards Nibbana. If a person realizes that his mind-body phenomenon is indeed suffering and that the real aim of the Buddha's invaluable guidance is the utter and expeditious release from the recurring births and deaths of samsara, he should not be content with attaining the stage of mental absorption or ecstasy (jhana). He must in every way search further and go beyond until he reaches his final objective, the ultimate supreme peace of Nibbana. In truth, there is no other way apart from Insight Meditation (vipassana bhavana) for the attainment of Nibbana. The Buddha says in Digha Nikaya, "This is the one and only way for the purification of beings, for overcoming sorrow and lamentation, for the destruction of pain and grief, for reaching the right path, for the attainment of Nibbana, namely, meditation on the Four Foundations of Mindfulness (satipatthana)."

Insight Meditation (Vipassana)

         In Buddhism, insight meditation (vipassana bhavana) is unique and distinct from other forms of concentration and contemplation that are only related to objects, that is, on conventional concepts or parlance (pannatti). As for vipassana, a commentator states, "Pannattim thapetva aniccadiakarena bhammne passatiti vipassana", which means to see things or phenomena in different analysis, in the light of impermanence (and so forth), without conventional concepts or parlance. In most cases, it is rather hard for an ordinary worldling to dispel conventional concepts from their minds. That is why insight meditation (vipassana ) is so vitally important and essential to every one of us, for without it we are sure to be ever confronted with much anguish from anxiety, worry, pain, distress, lamentation, suffering, despair and so on. Only when we penetrate into the stage of insight knowledge (nana) can we reduce and be freed from the sufferings of mind and body.

         Vipassana meditation indeed presents us with a systematic and methodical approach to gaining our lofty objective, the Perfect Enlightenment. It also provides a beautiful and intelligible interpretation of the secret of life and death, and as such, precisely declares that one can realize the Perfect Bliss by reaching the highest peak of life, the Path of Liberation and Ultimate Peace and Happiness.

         There are no ways or means in any other system, philosophy or religion other than Buddhism that can uproot the latent tendencies of defilements and enable one to attain the final liberation of Nibbana. Such being the case, vipassana meditation is the one and only way that can uproot the most subtle and seminal stage, that of immured passion.

         The method of vipassana meditation is very practical. Without meditation practice, no one can expect to achieve any stage of insight knowledge (nana). Here, from the theoretical and practical point of view, the technique of vipassana meditation is outlined below.

         The practitioner yogi who wishes to engage in the task of vipassana meditation has to look within himself. That is to say, he will have to watch or observe or meditate on all activities of physical and mental phenomena, scrutinizing every action happening in his own being with diligence, clear comprehension and mindfulness. In meditation, there are four kinds of postures: sitting, standing, walking and lying. Whatever posture he chooses; he has to concentrate on what he is doing at every moment. For example, in sitting meditation, he has to be fully conscious of the in-and-out breathing (anapana sati) and simultaneously the "touch and awareness of it". Thus, in due course, he will come to realize that "touch" is a physical phenomenon, whereas "awareness" a mental phenomenon: Both of them are in actuality just elements of the phenomena of mind-matter, not of "I" nor "he" nor "she" nor "man nor woman nor "self" nor "ego".

         This can also be applied to other postures. For instance, in walking meditation, the intention to walk is a mental phenomenon and the actual movement of the feet is a physical phenomenon. In the act of walking, one will find each of the two phenomena conditioning in its own way. Similarly, in the act of seeing a thing, the visual organs and the visible objects are both physical phenomena, and sight-awareness a mental phenomenon. Through these postures of meditation, the yogi thus comes to the stage of realization in distinguishing between mind and matter (namarupa pariccheda nana).

         Furthermore, he has to strictly observe any one of the either physical or mental phenomena according to the nature of impermanence, suffering and insubstantiality (sammasana nana). Then with the further progress of meditation, he will come to discern that the element on which he is meditating and the mental process which is taking note are both continually arising and vanishing away (udayavaya nana). When he is thus meditating only on one point of the arising and passing phenomenon of this element, he will eventually rise up to the stage of equilibrium, and then of inclination towards the Noble Truth. When he is thus going on following the same process of insight meditation, he finally enters the Path (magga) and instantly afterwards, Fruition (phala). He has now cast off the fetters of gross defilements which have been assailing him in the realm of ignorant worldling existence and consequently, he realizes that he no longer has the fetters of Illusive Selfish View (sakkaya ditthi), Sceptical Doubt (vicikiccha) and superficial Rites and Rituals (silabbataparamasa) in him. In this way, he has finally experienced with his supreme wisdom the genuine Perfect Blissful Peace of Nibbana for the first time. So he is called a Stream Winner (sotapanna ariya).

         Even as a sotapanna ariya, he can enjoy the Blissful Peace and Happiness so greatly and significantly that ordinary words cannot describe the proper sense of the term. That is why the Buddha taught in the Dhammapada, "Better than the enjoyment of absolute sovereignty over the earth, better than going to celestial abodes and better than even lordship over all the worlds is the Fruit of a Stream-Winner".

         For further development of his insight wisdom, when the yogi meditates in the same manner on the nature of the arising and passing phenomena, he will eventually go upwards to the stages of Once- Returner (sakadagami), then Non-Returner (anagami), and lastly the most Supremely Enlightened One (arahanta), the Holiest Noble One. When he has become the Final Noble One, there is no more rebirth, in the future in samsara because all his passions or corruptions have utterly ceased. He is now completely liberated forever and has attained the Everlasting Supramundane Peace and Happiness of Nibbana (santisukha).

         In conclusion, mental development (bhavana), especially vipassana bhavana, is a unique practice in Buddhism that alone lifts up a human being from the ignorant plane to the enlightened state of Nibbana, the Incomparable Supreme Blissful Peace.

BUDDHIST MEDITATION PRACTICE FOR EVERY BODY

         People in this age should pay more attention to meditation practice which alone will make them more mature and better developed in morality, in concentration and in wisdom or enlightenment. Meditation would certainly make one have less anxieties, worries, tension, nervousness, agitation, resentment and mental ills and diseases. Many religious people are rather satisfied and contented with their own knowledge of religious books or scriptures. They do not even go further to follow the actual tenet or the teaching of religion.

         They rarely go down to the depths or essence of religion, that is, deep Meditation for Enlightenment. They fail to realize that meditation is the most invaluable practice for them and so they haven't even started to practise it yet.

         Here, I would like to take out some facts from the Buddha's Teachings. There are three kinds of aspects of Buddhism, namely (I) Study or search for knowledge, i.e., the theoretical aspect (Pariyatti), (II) Meditation or mental development, actual practice or one's experience, i.e., the practical aspect (Patipatti) and (III) attainment of wisdom or enlightenment, i.e., the realizable aspect (Pativedha). As we have to develop ourselves according to these three aspects, we should not be just satisfied with book knowledge or speculative knowledge, but we must transcend theory or ordinary knowledge till we attain the actual experience of enlightenment or supreme knowledge (Vijja).

         Here, according to Buddhist Meditation, you do not need look for Truth or Peace outside, as it is just within yourselves. The Real Truth or Noble Truth (Ariya sacca) exists only within your own being, i.e. in your own body and mind. We Buddhists, do not rely or depend on any external Being in Heaven or anywhere else. We believe good or bad, purity or impurity comes out of our own actions. For instance, if we have done something bad or evil, we are sure to have bad or evil results or fruits due to our own bad action; and if we have done something good, we will have only good fruits. This is a clear evidence of the natural law of one's own action. If you believe in this natural law of the universe, called (kammasakata-nana), you have obtained a proper understanding of action and reaction. Or we can say that one has the right understanding of the real nature of action (kamma).

         You may find it difficult to attain the Noble Truth and Peace unless you know how to look for it within yourself. In fact, the Noble Truth or Peace is available in each and everybody. Man is potentially the perfect master of himself. Without depending or relying on any other powerful Being or Buddha or God, if you really search for Truth and Peace within yourself through the practice of Meditation, you will surely find true and supreme knowledge and enlightenment.

         We human beings are made up of two kinds of structure, e.g. physical structure and mental structure, or in other words, physical element or phenomenon and mental element or phenomenon, or in short, mind and body. Though we usually observe each and every thing, we see only the outer part or superficial form or shape, but not the inner nature or real truth of it. In the same way, when we hear, smell, taste, touch and think of all the things we come across, we observe just the outside form.

         For instance, when a gentleman sees a lady, he casually considers or observes that he sees only the figure of lady as a personality or an individual, not as being composed of a physical structure and mental structure. Likewise, when a lady sees a gentleman, she also observes in the same way. For either he or she is not enlightened enough to be able to see the real truth of himself or herself. That is only because he or she is deluded by ignorance and ensnared with craving.

         In reality, one does not see a lady or gentleman, but sees only the natural material particles of physical and mental phenomena or elements. For the lady whom the gentleman sees, is composed of material elements or qualities which have nothing in essence, substance, ego or self and they are, by nature, arising and passing away in a constant flux. And the person who sees the lady is also composed of the same elements or phenomena. For instance, the retina or base of the eye that sees or reflects the form of the lady is composed of merely material qualities or elements which are also arising and passing away.

         Therefore both the visible object and the base of the eye are not a personality, nor ego, nor self, nor individuality, nor an abiding entity. So in the case of seeing, there is no one or nothing such as a lady or a gentleman. In reality, the so-called lady or gentleman is only due to one's own egoistic wrong view or self illusive view that "I see her" or "I see him". Here "I" is self or ego or personality or individuality or an abiding entity.

         If we observe like this, we will see that we are not rightly aware of the true fact that the real source is only egoistic wrong view (Attaditthi or Sakkaya ditthi). In fact, we see just the material qualities or phenomena, or elements, but we assume or consider that he or she is a solid substance or entity of a man or a woman.

         Not rightly seeing or realizing the true intrinsic nature that he or she is merely composed of material particles of matter. He or she is attached to each and every thing arousing greed, hatred and delusion in his or her mind. In this way, when one sees, hears, smells, tastes, touches and thinks of another thing or another one, the he or she in nature casually feels pleasant or unpleasant, or neither pleasant or unpleasant just at the time of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching and thinking.

         Depending on this kind of wrong view of self or ego, impurities or defilements do arise all the time in one's mind. The impurities or defilements, such as, greed, hatred, anger or aversion, ill-will, delusion, envy, jealousy, etc... are going on the whole life until and unless one practises meditation which alone gives one the truth of life or the noble truth of mind and body. As long as we are unaware of the noble truth or real truth of ourselves, we will certainly be confronted with suffering. Although we are engrossed in these sufferings of life all the time, we usually do not understand that we are the victims of suffering. Then what is suffering? The obvious fact is that birth is suffering, ageing is suffering, disease, death, sorrow, lamentation, grief, despair, separation from near and dear ones, association with hated ones, not to get what one desires are all sufferings. In short, the composition or aggregate of this very being Mind-Body itself which we own, is really suffering.

         If we really want to get rid of suffering in life, we must find out the original source of suffering in order to analyze, investigate and scrutinize what suffering really is. Only when we come to realize the origin or source of suffering, then will we try to escape from the cycle of suffering. The origin or source of suffering is nothing, but desire or craving or thirty for sensual pleasures. If we find the cause of suffering, we can strive to dispel and eradicate it. Desire or craving is something like a mental disease and we must definitely have a remedy to cure these very evil mental diseases. The remedy is nothing but concentration and meditation.

         First we need concentration. As for concentration you don't need to find it outside of yourselves, but only inside or within yourselves. Concentration indeed is very helpful and can be an aid for us to attain the real tranquillity of mind and body.

         Only when you become enlightened, you can see the Noble Truth or Peace through your experience. This experience actually comes from the practice of Meditation by your own effort and ability, not by the power any other powerful or mighty Being. Meditation indeed is very simple. If you know the technique, you will certainly find the way, the golden path towards final liberation.

         Meditation makes no discrimination between black or brown, fair or dark, Buddhist or Christian. In fact, everybody can practice and find Truth and Peace by himself or herself if he or she really searches for it. Meditation indeed is for every body. Without meditation, one will find it very hard to guard, or control or manage one's own mind. As a result, unguarded or uncontrolled mind cannot see a thing as it really is, or a person as he really is. His mind is almost all the time impure with evil thoughts deluded by ignorance and ensnared with craving.

         If you have experience in meditation, you can direct your mind to whatever way you want to be. You can keep your mind in harmony with others by virtue of the attitude of your mind. You can live harmoniously with others like brothers and sisters, because you have the same temperament or disposition as others. Not only have you become harmonious with others, but you can also keep your mind as it is.

         Buddhist Meditation is not confined to any particular person or faith or race or sect. It is, of course, not apart from you, but just what you really have within yourself.

         Here, I would like to tell you how you have to practise Meditation. The method is simply a mindfulness of in-and-out breathing with your nose. First you have to find a quiet place where you will not have any disturbance during your Meditation. Then you have to sit in cross-legged form for man or courtesy form for woman, or on a chair keeping your feet flat on the floor and your body straight and then relax every part of your body and make yourself as comfortable as possible. Put your right palm on the left and keep your mind as quiet and calm as possible and then close your eyes lightly. Please don't think about anything, just focus on the tip of the nose. While you are breathing in and out, the air touches the tip of the nose. At that moment, you must be mindfully aware of the touch and then be aware of the awareness.

         Thus you eventually come to know that there arise only two elements or phenomena e.g., physical element and mental element. If you realize by yourself what you really are and how you are composed of these two constituents or elements, you come to see the true perspective of yourself and have attained the knowledge of differentiation between mind and matter. This experience can be obtained from the touch and awareness of your breath. You can also apply this technique to other senses, e.g., eye and visible object, ear and sound, nose and smell, tongue and taste, body and touch, mind and mental object, in the same way as touch and awareness of the tip of the nose.

         When you thus know yourself in the ultimate sense, you will know others, too, in the same way. You now see the whole world in its intrinsic true nature, and you fully understand that all conditioned things are impermanent, all conditioned things are suffering and all things are impersonal, insubstantial, selfless or egoless.

         Once your mind is fully aware of everything at the moment of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching, thinking, no impure or evil thoughts can enter your mind and thus you are utterly free from any taint of defilement because you come to know the touch and awareness in the true nature of phenomena that touching is not your touch; awareness too not your own awareness. They are in fact mere elements, but not you or your own self or ego. They are all the time arising and vanishing way in their intrinsic nature. Thus your mind with the insightful knowledge will always be independent from all attachments, worries, sorrow, lamentation, despair and greed, etc. and you are sure to obtain the real light of Supreme Wisdom (Adhipanna). This is the only way for utter liberation from all sufferings of life, called the Noble Truth of Cessation or the Ultimate Happiness and Peace of Deliverance (Vimutti Sukha) in Buddhism.

SOME SALIENT ATTRIBUTES OF THE DHAMMA

          Modern age broadens one's view and urges man to search for what is best and most truthful in life. Human life is superior to animal levels of existence, because man has the power of discrimination between good and bad, wholesome and unwholesome, right and wrong, cause and effect, etc. Man, as a rational being, observes that it is human nature to struggle and discover the truth of life, that is, to enjoy genuine peace and real happiness and release from all pains.

          Man is indeed given the golden opportunity to obtain lasting peace and happiness. It wholly depends on how he strives for his own salvation. The power is latent within him. He is therefore capable of utilizing his power to the best advantage. By relying on one's own effort and mastering oneself one can make circumstances favourable and thereby experience the truth of one's life here and now.

          The technique of practice in Buddhism is rather simple, not to search in a faraway place, but to discover it only within your body and mind with the help of the Buddha's Teaching, known as Dhamma. If you practise it at this moment, you are sure to obtain the marvellous results forthwith. Just put yourself in the actual practice for some days and then you will amazingly find the effective fruits through your own experience in the enlightened life.

          The Buddha-Dhamma is a systematic method of teaching, based on universal principles of cosmic nature, by which human beings can be released from all sufferings in Samsara and attain ultimate happiness through supreme enlightenment. The Noble Truths of the Dhamma are not confined only to one individual, or to one sect or nation. They can be discerned by any one, provided he or she really wishes to obtain them. They are, in fact, universally present in everybody's mind. The Dhamma is not confined only to believers in Buddhism. It indeed can be used by all. But the essential fact of the Dhamma is to examine it by oneself as far as possible.

          Here, the Buddha explained to the Kalama Princes in the Kesamutti Sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya:

          "You Kalamas, be not led by heresy or by what is handed down by tradition or by what people say, or by what is stated on the. authority of your traditional teaching. Be not led by reasoning, nor by inferring, not by argument as to method, nor by delight in speculative opinions, by seeming possibilities, or by the directions from your teachers. But, Oh! Kalamas when you know of yourselves that certain actions done by you are not good, false and considered worthless by the wise: that when perpetuated, they will lead to loss or suffering, then give them up... and when you know of yourselves that certain actions done by you are good, true and considered worthy by the wise, then accept them and put them into practice."

          Moreover, one can also see, observe and scrutinize one's experience with the inherent qualities of the Dhamma and see whether it is good in the beginning, good in the middle and good in the end (Svakkhato), whether it is to be realized by oneself (Sanditthiko), whether it is immediately effective (Akaliko), whether it is inviting all to come and see (Ehipassiko), whether it is worthy to be achieved (Opaneyyko) and whether it is to be comprehended by the wise each for himself or herself (Paccattam veditabbo vinnuhi).

          In this way, the Dhamma advocates a golden rule that guides a person by means of pure thoughts and right living to the attainment of supreme wisdom and liberation from life's miseries. The Dhamma is not a subject to be studied for scriptural knowledge (Pariyatti), but to be learned in actual practice accordingly (Patipatti) as its main emphasis is on practice. There by one can expect to realize the Noble Truth or Enlightenment (Pativedha). In other words, one must learn the Dhamma thoroughly for sufficient knowledge of the scriptures (sutamaya nana), thereby developing the reasoning faculty (cintamaya nana) and then attaining insight knowledge (bhavanamaya nana) towards Supreme Wisdom (Adhi panna).

          The Dhamma of course is always in existence as it is an immutable law of the eternal truth of the nature of the universe whether the Buddhas appear in the world or not. But it can be discovered and fully realized only by the Buddhas. The Dhamma itself is therefore that which really is. In other words, it is the Doctrine of Reality or Truth comprehensible only by the wise or Noble Ones, and a means of deliverance from all sufferings of life. Thus the Dhamma can prevent a person who lives up to its principles from falling down to lower miserable and woeful planes of existence (Apaya) and it can rather lead him to the stage of the Path, Fruition and Nibbana by preventing him from doing evil deeds. The true followers of the Buddha who live by the principles of the Dhamma can enjoy the Blissful Happiness of Liberation (Vimutti rasa). Thus the Buddha and His Noble Disciples, having realized the supra-mundane wisdom of the Dhamma through their enlightenment, show its light to all beings so that they can also attain the same.

          Therefore the Dhamma is not regarded as a divine revelation, but simply as the advice of a great religious teacher to his disciples. It is not to be accepted and believed, but to be understood and practised. The Dhamma, in fact, contains only non-aggressive morals and psycho-philosophical principles; it demands no blind faith, expounds no dogma and encourages no superstitions, but bestows practical and experimental intelligence.

          Furthermore, the Dhamma itself proves that "one who practises the Dhamma, will in turn be protected by the Dhamma. He who imbibes the Dhamma will live happily with a purified mind and the wise will always take delight in the Dhamma as revealed by the Noble Ones (Ariyas). The gift of Truth (Dhamma) excels all gifts, the flavour of Truth excels all flavours, the delight in Truth excels all delights and the final victory over all suffering is the extinction of craving".

          In His Teaching of the Dhamma the Buddha made some noteworthy points: "He who practises the Dhamma to the best of his ability honours me best. One is one's own refuge, who else could be his refuge?"

          "By oneself evil is done; by oneself one suffers; by oneself evil is left undone; by oneself one is purified. Purity and impurity are dependent on oneself, no one can purify another."

          "You should do your work, for the Buddhas teach and show only the way. You yourself should make an effort; the Buddhas are only Teachers. Be ye enlightened unto yourself, be ye a refuge unto yourself, be ye a refuge unto the Dhamma, there is no external refuge."

          On the whole, in the Dhamma there can be found neither divine revelation nor divine messenger, neither reward nor punishment, neither self-indulgence nor self-mortification, neither metaphysical nor ritualistic way, neither pessimism nor optimism, neither scepticism nor dogmatism, neither eternalism nor nihilism. In the Dhamma there is a unique principle to be practised for the attainment of Supreme Wisdom and Perfect Enlightenment of Nibbana. The Dhamma indeed paves the noble way to be trodden for purification of morality and concentration and then wisdom of the Middle Way which the Buddha Himself discovered.

          The Dhamma thus teaches one the genuine art of living harmoniously with oneself and with all those one happens to meet socially in one's daily life. The gradual purification of conduct and mind through the practice of the Dhamma makes one's mind calmer, clearer, steadier and more composed. It eventually removes confusion, anxiety, tension, uncertainty, doubt, egoism and wrong view, all the impurities of mind and thus the intending Yogi comes on the true way of enlightenment. In this way, one can, even in this present life, experience and realize the everlasting happiness of life which exceeds all other sensuous feelings. In conclusion, the real aim of the Buddhadhamma is to put an end to all pains and sufferings of life and to attain the Ultimate Blissful Peace of Nibbana.

THE BUDDHIST IDEALS FOR ENLIGHTENMENT

          In Buddhism, there are various Enlightened individuals who have attained the final Enlightenment (Bodhi). The Theravadins of Myanmar recognize that the final Nibbana is in reality one, but that Nibbana can be realized by different types of Enlightened individuals in accordance with their method of practice according as their degrees of perfection (Parami), that is, the ideal for the Supreme Enlightenment of the Buddha is not the same as His Chief or Great or Ordinary Disciples who, however, have also attained Nibbana by virtue of His Teaching through their respective supramundane knowledge of the Path and Fruition by means of the accomplishment of their perfections, like the Chief Disciple, the Venerable Sariputta and the Great Disciple, the Venerable Mahakassapa, etc.

          Human beings by nature vary in their personal temperament, inclination or tendency and thus they generally follow various means or methods suitable to their will or intention on their journey towards the ultimate goal of Nibbana.

          The Buddha is equally compassionate towards all beings and thus taught the Dhamma for the benefit of all, for the happiness of all, and out of compassion for all sentient beings of the whole universe. The Dhamma taught by Him is indeed impartial and so applicable to any race, colour, sex, caste or nation and His Noble Disciples (Sangha) are universal, holy and incomparable in morality (Sila), concentration (Samadhi) and wisdom (Panna). Yet some of the controversial views in aspiring to these ideals might occur in some followers and at some places, but they do not actually influence or modified the fundamental issues of the well-expounded Teaching (sudesitam) which form the real essence of Buddhism, i.e., salvation or emancipation (nivyanika) or liberation (vimutti). So we, Buddhists, have to treat these points of controversy as superficial and nonessential which, in fact, they are, any how. What we should look for is essence only, not for excrescence.

          The important fact in Buddhism is to have the quality of the true Buddhist spirit and insight wisdom or Enlightenment (Bodhi) which alone make a genuine noble Buddhist or a Noble One (Ariya). Here, we Buddhists well appreciate and understand the profound sense of the Teaching that the doctrine of the Buddha, in the fullest sense of them, is really meant only to work for the attainment of one's Deliverance from suffering (vimutti). The Lord Buddha had declared that just as the great ocean has one taste, i.e. the taste of salt, even so His doctrine (Dhamma) and Rules of Discipline (Vinaya) have only one taste, i.e. the taste of Liberation (vimutti). It is therefore reasonable to maintain that any system of the Buddha's Teaching which is conducive to the attainment of liberation is a genuine doctrine of Buddhism. As such, the real test of genuineness of any school or system of Buddhism is whether the status of the Enlightened Ones or the Noble Ones (Ariya;) can be achieved. On the whole, as a true follower of the Buddha the disciple must strive his best for attainment of Bodhi of the Enlightened One or the Noble One until he reaches his final liberation even in his present life or within the coming few existences.

          In Buddhism there are three main ideals for the realization of Enlightenment (Bodhi). Here the Pali word "Bodhi" means insight wisdom of the Path (Magga nana), the Enlightened One (Sabbanuta nana). It is also rendered as Nibbana (Nibbanam bodhi); and the Enlightened One and the Noble One Ariyasavako bodhi). I Therefore Bodhi is the ultimate goal or supreme wisdom to which all Buddhists aspire by means of three ideals which are as follows;

•           (1) The aspiration to become a Perfectly Self-Enlightened One (Samma-sambodhi) or the Samma-sambuddha Ideal;

•          (2) The aspiration to become an Individual or Private Enlightened One (Paccekabodhi) or the Pacceka-buddha Ideal; the Pacceka Buddha, despite self-enlightenment, normally does not declare or teach His Dhamma to others;

•           (3) The aspiration to attain the Noble Disciplehood (Savakabodhi) or the Savaka Ideal.

          Regarding these ideals, the Mahayana sect generally emphasizes the Bodhisatta Ideal, i.e. to obtain a Buddhahood whereas the Theravada emphasizes not only the Savaka Ideal but also recognizes the other ideals. The Savaka Ideal is the aspiration to become an Arahat, the Holiest Noble One.

          In Theravada Buddhist countries, especially in Myanmar, many practitioners prefer this Savaka Ideal, the ideal for the attainment of Supreme Peaceful Happiness (Santisukha), because they believe that this Savaka Ideal can be accomplished even in this life time, or else in the near existences to come, provided that their potentiality has been perfected in the past. Their main aim is to gain release from the cycle of suffering of mind-matter phenomena within a shorter period of lives in Samsara.

          With reference to this Savaka Bodhi. the Noble Disciplehood, there is also a subdivision of three types of Individuals. viz.

          (1) (Aggasavaka) the Chief Noble Disciple, (2) (Mahasavaka) the Great Noble Disciple and (3) (Pakatisavaka) the Ordinary Noble Disciple. An aspirant has to make his determination precisely by choosing one of the aforesaid three ideals in accordance with his particular temperament and innate qualities.

          From the time of deciding on an aspiration for the Bodhi, one has to practise incessantly the five factors of virtue, viz. (1) faith or confidence (Saddha) in the Triple Gems, (i.e. the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha), (2) virtue (Sila), (3) Knowledge (Suta), (4) alms-giving or generosity (Caga) and (5) wisdom (Panna), and also to fulfil the ten kinds of Perfection (Parami), namely, (1) alms-giving (dana), (2) morality (sila), (3) renunciation (nikkhama), (4) wisdom (panna), (5) energy (viriya), (6) patience (khanti), (7) truthfulness (sacca), (8) determination (adhitthana), (9) loving-kindness (metta) and (10) equanimity (upekkhha).

          Aspiring to any specific one of the Bodhis without the practice of the aforesaid five factors of virtue, or else practising the five factors of virtue without having selected and dedicated oneself to any specific one of the ideals precisely can never lead one to the attainment of Enlightenment (Bodhi) and as a result, the course of one's existence is unstable.

          From the outset of aspiration, the duration will last according to one's ideal and degree of perfections. Regarding the Perfectly Self- Enlightened One, it will take at least four Asankheyyas and one hundred thousand world cycles (kappa) that is, the intellectual type of Bodhisatta which emphasizes wisdom (pannadhika). As for the devotional type of the Bodhisatta emphasizing endeavour (viriyadhika) requires 16 Asankheyvas and one hundred thousand Kappas.

          Regarding the Pacceka Buddha the Individual or Undeclared Enlightened One, it will take two Asankheyyas and one hundred thousand Kappas (pannadhika); four Asankheyyas and one hundred thousand Kappas for the Pacceka Buddha who emphasizes faith (saddhadhika) and eight Asankheyyas and one hundred thousand Kappas for an energetic type of Pacceka Buddha (viriyadhika).

          Regarding the duration of three types of Savaka the Noble Disciple, the practice for perfection will take one Asankheyyas and one hundred thousand Kappas for Aggasavaka, the Chief; one hundred thousand Kappas for Mahasavaka, the great and no limitation of time for Pakato-savaka the Ordinary One.

          Moreover, during the period of aspiration both these two types of the Enlightened Ones and three types of the Noble Disciples have to fulfil the ten kinds of Perfections (parami) in three varying stages of degree. For instance, the Fully Enlightened Ones have to fulfil completely or the three stages of degree say in Dana- parami, namely, (1) ordinary service, such as, giving one's own property; (2) more difficult or higher service (upaparami), such as, forsaking one's organs; and (3) the most difficult or highest service (paramattha parami),' such as, sacrificing even one's own life. But the two stages of the ordinary and higher services are to be fulfilled by the Individual or Separate Buddhas (Pacceka-buddhas) and the ordinary service is fulfilled only by the Ordinary Noble Disciples (Savakas).

          Furthermore, the Bodhisatta (Buddha-to be) has also to practise the five kinds of great forsakings (mahapariccaga), such as, giving one's limbs, one's property, one's state (or kingship) and one's son, daughter or wife, and three kinds of the highest conduct (cariya), i.e. to attain a Buddhahood for oneself (Buddhattha kariya), for the welfare of the relatives or nation (natattha cariya) and for all beings at large (lokattha cariya).

          Of all the modes of Bodhi, the Samma-sambuddha Ideal is the most difficult one and the Pakatisavaka Ideal or aspiration for the Ordinary Noble Disciplehood is an easy way to obtain the Path (Magga), Fruition (Phala) and Nibbana in a shorter period of time so as to obtain release from the endless cycle of birth and death (anamatagga samsara).

•           Conquer anger by love; conquer evil by good;

•           Conquer the stingy one by giving; conquer the liar by truth.