THREEFOLD TRAINING OF A DISCIPLE

      A disciple (savaka) is one who follows the instructions taught by the Buddha and practises them accordingly. He has to fulfill to the best of his ability the threefold training in order to attain the Supramundane Happiness of Nibbana.

      The true advantage and benefit of the disciple's life lies in the threefold training with morality (sila) as the preliminary phase or ground, the practice of concentration (samadhi) as the second, and wisdom (panna) the means of obtaining final release from all defilements as the third. The principles in these three divisions are only practised so as to lead up to the attainment of Nibbana.

      As a first stage, the disciple must be perfectly trained in the moral rules, must keep his senses restrained, must develop mindfulness, self-possession or comprehension and must be trained in moral purity. That is, he has to accomplish the three factors of morality, namely, Right Action, Right Speech and Right Livelihood, called Purity of Morality (silavisuddhi).

      Having acquired a firm foundation based on these moral principles, he must then seek a dwelling place suitable for the practice of meditation, i.e., a secluded spot in a forest, or at the foot of a tree or on a hill side, or in a rock cave, or in a cemetery or in an open field.

      Selecting a suitable place of solitude as his abode, he should begin to practise meditation in the following way: -

      Having finished his moderate food, he should sit down, cross-legged and keep his body erect, for at least an hour, five times a day. Then including in himself the state of mindfulness, keen and alert with clear comprehension, he should first purify his mind through the concentration of touch and awareness on the tip of the nose by breathing in and out mindfully.

      From this meditative experience of touch and awareness, he must also apply himself to all other bodily movements. such as lying, sitting, standing and walking (iriyapatha) Moreover, even during such meditation period, he must always be mindfully aware of the fact that whatever he sees, hears, smells, tastes, touches and thinks about is only the phenomena of mind and matter. Mentally noting by way of sampajanna, all thought moments are arising from seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching and thinking, as the seen that is just seen (ditthe ditthamattam), as the heard that is just heard (sutesuta-mattam,as the touched that is just touched (mute mutamattam) and as the thought that is just thought of (vinnate vinnatamattam).

      Thus the five hindrances (nivarana), namely, (1) sensuous desire, (2) ill-will, (3) sloth and torpor, (4) distraction and worry and (5) perplexity will eventually be dispelled from his mind. When he perceives that these five hindrances have been expelled from within him, gladness springs up and being glad, joy is born in him; when his mind experiences this joy, his body becomes serene; and serenity in turn gives rise to happiness; with this felling of happiness his mind becomes concentrated. This is the beginning of Samadhi which leads to the stages of Jhana in the course of further development.

      As soon as the disciple's mind is released from the five hindrances, the first stage of Jhana is reached. There are four stages of Jhana according to the systems of Samatha concentration. They are developed from one stage to another in the ascending order. When the disciple proceeds further with his meditation, the concentration becomes more and more intense at each stage until its faculty is firmly established.

      The First Jhana

      1. 'Having become free from sensuous desire (kamacchanda) and evil thoughts, he attains and abides in the first Jhana which is accompanied by reasoning (vitakka), investigation (vicara). rapture (piti) and happiness (sukha) arising from seclusion

      When the disciple continues the same practice of meditation he again attains the second Jhana as follows:

      The Second Jhana

      2. "With the elimination of reasoning and investigation in the state of internal serenity with one-pointedness of mind, he attains and abides in the second Jhana accompanied by the rapture and happiness produced by concentration."

      When the reasoning and investigation of objects have disappeared, the disciple proceeds to the third Jhana as follows:

      The Third Jhana

      3. "With the cessation of rapture, he remains in equanimity mindful and self-possessed experiencing bodily happiness. Thus he attains and abides in the third Jhana."

      The disciple thereafter must use every effort to gain release from happiness in turn. When this is completed, he attains the fourth Jhana which is the culmination of mental concentration.

      The Fourth Jhana

      4. 'With the abandonment of happiness and pain together with the disappearance both of elation and depression, he attains and abides in the fourth Jhana which knows neither pain nor happiness but only the perfection of pure mindfulness produced by equanimity. Now he sits permeating his body with his cleansed and purified mind and there is no spot at all in his body not permeated by it."

      In this highest ecstatic stage, there remains only one element which is pure mental alertness produced by perfect balance free from all elements of disturbances. When this state of mind is attained, the disciple is neither inactive nor in a condition of complete trance. Rather he becomes increasingly active because this stage has made his mind sharp, keen and purified by the process of Jhana.

      In this condition, the mind becomes suitable and fit to possess some kind of supernormal psychic powers (iddhi). This is the second stage of training in concentration (samadhi) wherewith the disciple has accomplished the three factors of the Noble Paths, namely, Right Endeavour, Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration.

      With the mind thus concentrated, purified, cleansed, flawless, free from defilements, supple, ready to act, firm and imperturbable, he turns and applies it to the acquisition of insight knowledge (vipassana-nana).

      Now the disciple comes to comprehend that the phenomena of touch and awareness are only physical and mental states; in other words, they are only two ultimate realities, Matter and Mind. And thus the disciple has reached the stage that can distinguish the nature of differentiation between mind and matter in the ultimate sense (namarupa pariccheda nana).

      Then through the first stage of Vipassana Insight, the disciple again comes to understand that these phenomena of mind and matter are just the process of cause and effect resulting from ignorance, craving, kammic energy, consciousness, temperature and food.

      By continuing his meditation, he has attained the realisation of what is called the aggregate 'khandha' , composed of mind and matter, is in a state of constant flux. It cannot remain the same even for two consecutive moments and therefore is perpetually arising and vanishing away.

      And furthermore, the disciple comes to realize that the phenomena of mind and matter that are in the nature of arising and passing away are subject to impermanence or transience (anicca), suffering or anguish (dukkha) and insubstantiality or soullessness or impersonality (anatta). As such, there is nothing to be called as I, he, she, man, woman, husband, wife, son, daughter, soul, self, enjoyer or sufferer etc. In reality, it is just an incessant manifestation of egoless psycho-physical states.

      By advancing and developing his practice of meditation, the disciple eventually will come to the state of the cessation of the arising and passing phenomena. When his fetters of egoistic view, sceptical doubts and superstitious rites and rituals are totally expelled from his defiled mind, he becomes a Sotapan Ariya who has perfectly fulfilled the stage of wisdom (panna), i.e. the two factors of the Noble Paths, namely, Right Understanding and Right Thoughts.

      In this way, the Noble Disciple (ariya savaka) of the Buddha has attained the supramundane insight knowledge of the First Path and Fruition experiencing the perfect Peaceful Happiness of Nibbana. As a result, he, by virtue of sotapan 's righteous living, never goes down to the lower miserable planes, has obtained relief and firmly established in the dispensation of the Buddha and ever destined only to the superior stages of the existence, till he reaches the final attainment of the Arahat's Enlightenment in the Ultimate Supreme Happiness of Nibbana.

BUDDHA SASANA

      The word "Sasana" is a Pali term which means "Desana", the Teaching of the Buddha. The Teaching or "Desana" is composed of three parts, namely, (1) Anadesana or Vinaya pitaka in which the Buddha promulgated rules for Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis, (2) Voharadesan or Suttanta pitaka in which the Buddha taught the Dhamma in accordance with the conventional terms for the welfare of beings, (3) Paramatthadesana or Abhidhamma pitaka in which the Buddha taught the actual facts of things as they truly are in the ultimate reality.

      "Sasana" is generally translated into English as the "dispensation of the Buddha". In the ultimate sense, Sasana is only "niyyarika" meaning the way to the deliverance or emancipation from the rounds of Samsara.

      Besides, Sasanameans the words instructed by the Buddha with respect to the principles of Disciplinary Rules called yathaparadha sasana (i.e. Vinaya Pitaka). The words of the Buddha instructed with regard to the personal behaviours are called yathanuloma sasana (i.e. Suttanta Pitaka). And the words of the Buddha instructed in conformity with Universal Law are called yathadhamma sasana (i.e. Abhidhamma Pitaka).

      Truly indeed, the Teaching of the Buddha, the Sasana, can offer noble instruction to all beings so that they might obtain release from the sufferings in Samsara.

      Moreover, there are three types of Sasana in another way, namely:

      1. The moral principles pertaining to the Path and Fruition are called Lokuttara Adhisila or super-moral practices concerning with supra-mundane knowledge and the five or eight or ten precepts which are observed by the faithful lay devotes. The ten precepts by novices and the 227 rules of discipline by Bhikkhus are mundane moral practices which are also called Lokira Adhisila. These two are super-moral practices (Adhi Sila Sikkha Sasana) or the dispensation of the training for super-moral principles.

      2. In the same manner, Adhicitta Sikkha Sasana is of two kinds, namely, the supramundane consciousness relating to the Path and Fruition are called "Lokuttara Adhicitta" and the higher wholesome consciousness leading to insight knowledge (Vipassana) or super-consciousness based on Vipassana is "Lokiya Adhicitta ". Both the above two are Adhicitta Sikkha Sasana or the dispensation of the training for the attainment of super-consciousness.

      3. Likewise, Adhipanna Sasana or the dispensation of the training for supreme wisdom which is to attain the Path and Fruition is called "Lokuttara Adhipanna" supramundane wisdom, and that which is concerned only with the insight knowledge (Vipassana nana) is Lokiya Panna.

      In other words the Sasana is divided into three parts, namely, (1) the whole text of Tipitaka, three baskets consisting of the words of the Buddha, is called Pariyatti Sasana:;(2) the actual practice in accordance with the teachings of the Buddha is called Patipatti Sasana; (3) the attainment of the Four Noble Truths achieved by the practice of the Dhamma is called Pativedha Sasana which is the attainment of Nibbana.

      To mention further in detail, there are five kinds of Sasana, namely, (1) the Four Paths, Four Fruitions, the Fourfold Analytic Insight Knowledge (Patisambhida), the Threefold Supreme Knowledge( Vijja), the six kinds of supernormal powers (Ahhinna) are called Adhigama Sasana or the dispensation of the attainment in supreme knowledge: (2) the Four Kinds of Purity of Livelihood (Parisuddhi) are Patipatti Sasana; (3) the original Pali text together with commentaries and subcommentaries are Pariyatti Sasana; 4 in the Buddha Sasana, the personal appearances or the features of the novices who observe the ten precepts and that of the monks who follow the Vinaya rules are Linga Sasana; (5) after the demise of the Buddha, the remaining relics are called Dhatu Sasana. The five successive stages of disappearance of the Sasana will occur in due course. With reference to the Pariyatti Sasana, or theoretical aspect of study of the Dhamma, there are three baskets (Tipitaka), namely, Vinaya pariyatti sasana, Suttanta pariyatti sasana and Abhidhamma pariyatti sasana.

      1. Vinaya pariyatti sasana is the study of the disciplinary rules for Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis, which include the 227 rules in general and 91,805,036,000 rules described all in detail in the Vinaya Pali Texts.

      2. Suttanta pariyatti sasana is the study of the discourses or dialogues delivered by the Buddha with due regard to the various temperaments of individuals, in this section there are five Nikayas viz., Dighanikaya (the collection of long Discourses) which consists of 34 discourses, Majjhima nikaya (the collection of Middle Length Discourses) 152 discourses, Samyutta Nikaya (the Collection of Kindred Sayings) 7762 discourses, Anguttara Nikaya (the collection of Discourses from Gradual Sayings) 9557 discourses and Khuddaka Nikaya (the collection of Minor Anthologies) in 18 volumes.

      3. Abhidhamma pariyatti sasana is the study of the higher analytic doctrine or profound philosophy of the Buddha, which consists of natural phenomena of ultimate reality and expresses absolute truths of consciousness, psychic factors, material body or physical matter and Nibbana.

      Interaction of Sasana

      "Pariyattiya thitaya sasanam thitam hod". It means that so long as the study of the Dhamma or the Doctrine of the Buddha exists the Sasana will survive. The following examples will make it clear how "Pariyatti Sasana" is of vital importance.

      (A) Every tree depends on its roots for its growth and for its branches, leaves, flowers and fruits etc. to flourish.

      (B) The water of the lake can exist only where there are bank-walls. The water lilies also can blossom only when there is water in the lake.

      (C) Though there may be many bullocks, if there is no cow that can breed, there cannot be continuity of its kind.

      (D) One can remember the goldpot buried in the ground only if there is a mark (of letters) or stone inscription to indicate the place. In the same way, as long as the dual aspect of the study of the Dhamma (Pariyatti) and the actual practice (Patipatti) exists, the attainment of wisdom or enlightenment (Pativedha) will inevitably follow in our present time. Thus the ancestry of Ariyas (Noble Ones) will never come to an end and consequently the Path, Fruition and Nibbana the(Adhigama Sasana) will be long lasting and fruitful for those who devote themselves to the actual practice in conformity with the teaching of the Buddha.

      In reality, it is a natural fact that the dual aspect of study and practice of Dhamma will assuredly engender the attainment of Enlightenment, and thus the interaction of the three sasana will benefit all beings forever.

      Thus we know that the Pariyatti Sasana is the foundation of the Buddha Sasana; and moreover, the real vital basis of the Pariyatti Sasanais "Vinaya", (the Rules of Discipline), which is the very life of the whole Sasana of the Buddha (Vinayo nama sasanssa ayu). And only if there is Vinaya, the whole Sasana will remain forever (Vinaye thite sasanam thitam hoti).

      The Buddha Sasana will remain purified only if Bhikkhus (monks), novices, nuns and laymen alike continue arduously to observe the Vinaya. The disciplinary rules or moral precepts can be perpetuated so long as they study, hold onto the teaching and put it into practice and the Dhamma can be propagated by imparting their knowledge of the Noble Truths to others.

FIVE  RARITIES

      Man does not see the true nature of a phenomenon because of his delusion. As a worldling, he is deluded into seeing suffering as happiness, vanity as essence, disgust as pleasure, impermanence as permanence, impersonality as personality, etc. His mind is not quite developed in ultra-mundane knowledge due to his own past imperfection. If his past good deeds, i.e. the Ten Perfections were matured, he would have developed himself in supra-mundane knowledge through hearing the word of the doctrine, even as fire covered by its ashes is lighted suddenly when the wind blows.

      By learning through books we can gain much knowledge. In the world those who are well-educated are regarded as learned or wise persons. In this connection, as an enlightened Buddhist, one will realize that such a person possesses only mundane knowledge and not spiritual ultra-mundane wisdom (panna) for only when he has attained the spiritual ultra-mundane wisdom or knowledge, can he realize the truth of reality (Dhamma); that is, he is enlightened in the stages, up to the state of the Worthy One (Arahatship).

      Man's ultimate goal is to attain sainthood ultimately by his way of life, otherwise his life is not worthwhile; and even though born as a human being, he misses a golden opportunity. So we should try to know the facts about the Five Rarities. In the Auguttara Nikaya, the Buddha explains the importance of those rarities, thus, "Oh Bhikkhus, be mindful of this; in the world there are five rarities, namely:

     (1) The arising of a Buddha is an extreme rarity,

     (2) Being born as a human being is an extreme rarity,

     (3) To have genuine faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha is an extreme rarity,

     (4) To become a genuine Bhikkhu (Buddhist monk) is an extreme rarity.

     (5) To hear the Noble Truth of the Buddha's doctrine is an extreme rarity.

      (1) Why is the arising of the Buddha an extreme rarity?

      Because any one who is considered eligible for Buddhahood has to complete a performance of thirty kinds of perfections and it takes an infinite number of world cycles, (say four or eight or sixteen Asankheyas and 100,000 Kappas). For instance, when our Buddha was in his last birth he was convinced that mortification of the body was not in keeping with his middle path. After six years of this experience, he found the middle way; then he become enlightened as a Buddha.

      For many aeons, there was no arising of the Buddha in the world. As a result, all the beings were in darkness of ignorance, not knowing the means of escape from the painful suffering of birth and death. They missed the golden opportunity of being born in the time of a Buddha's teaching. it is therefore very essential for us to avail ourselves of this opportunity of earnestly following of the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha, for the emergence of the Buddha is an extreme rarity.

     (2) Why is it an extreme rarity to be born as a human being?

      According to Buddhism, only those who have done meritorious deeds in former births can be born as human beings.

      The Buddha taught us in the Nakhupama Sutta that there are only a few out of all beings who become human beings and compares their number to a small amount of earth held in the hand in contrast to that of the whole globe. Even though one is privileged to be born a human being, it is still rare to be born with perfect organs, to be free from the pain of madness, blindness, insanity or other afflictions. The difference between one man and another is only due to the result of deeds done in former births, good or bad. It is in the nature of a human being to be deluded, and to take delight in doing evil things as the Buddha has said in the Dhammapada. For this reason, it is an extreme rarity to be born as a perfectly normal human being.

     (3) Why is it an extreme rarity to have a genuine faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha?

      As there are so many faiths in the world, it is rare for one to have a right understanding of truth. But what is "Right understanding"? Right understanding here means having true knowledge if the law of Kamma, that is, there are good and bad results corresponding to their good and bad root causes.

      Here we have two categories of faiths, namely ordinary faith and genuine faith. The Buddhist devotees, who have ordinary faith in the three gems, do meritorious deeds, give alms, observe the precepts, listen to the sermons, and preach the doctrine to others. As for those who have genuine faith, they not only do the above deeds but they are also devoted to the real practice of Insight Exercise, or Meditation and have realized the true nature of the arising and passing away of the elements within the mind and body. Thus they are enlightened on the clear understanding of the three characteristics of impermanence, suffering and non-personality and have attained the Path, Fruition and Nibbana.

     (4) Why is it an extreme rarity to become a genuine Bhikkhu?

      A Bhikkhu is one who has renounced the world in order to seek genuine happiness and peace of mind. Since he is a holy person, it is his duty to observe at least the 227 moral rules of the Vinaya discipline laid down by the Buddha.

      There are so many rules and regulations for the holy life that one who is ordained into the Buddhist monkhood should learn these rules thoroughly. Not only that, he must also observe these rules strictly even if it costs him his life. They are so strict that his position can be likened to a mustard seed balanced on the point of a needle.

      So it can be said that a Bhikkhu stands nearer sainthood, and likewise he is also in greatest danger of falling. In the Dullabha Sangha Commentary, it is mentioned that if a Bhikkhu is not dutiful in the task of a Bhikkhu. or if he is not dutiful in the observance of moral discipline, it would be better for him to eat red-hot balls of iron. In addition to all these, a Bhikkhu must also be able to spend all his time in reading, reciting, teaching the precious Dhamma and practising Meditation or Insight Exercise. In the light of the above fact, it is extremely difficult for a Bhikkhu to live a well-disciplined and holy life.

      Though one can become a well-disciplined Bhikkhu, yet it is very difficult to be happy in the Bhikkhuhood for long owing to its many strict rules. It is said that only those who have found perfection through good deeds in the past lives can be happy in the Bhikkhu's life. So it is an extreme rarity for one to live as a true Bhikkhu.

     (5) Why is it an extreme rarity to hear the Noble Truth of the Buddha's doctrine?

      The Noble Truth or Dhamma as taught by the Buddha is so profound and subtle that only the wise or intellectual type can realize it. This kind of Noble Truth in its completeness can be discovered only when a Buddha arises in the world. Since the arising of a Buddha is an extreme rarity, it is also most difficult to have the golden opportunity of hearing the Noble Truth. During certain aeons of time, though people searched for one who was able to teach them even a stanza of the Noble Truth, there was no one to be found. This Noble Truth exists, but only the Buddhas can discover and reveal this truth to others.

      We are indeed fortunate to be born as human beings thus gaining these rarities. As a result, we can understand and appreciate these rarities. If we were to grow old in a state of ignorance inspite of our been born during the brilliant times of the Noble Truth of the Buddha's doctrine, we might even lose our chance of being born as a human being. So, in conclusion, I want to offer a sound advice to the readers that by observing these Five Rarities profoundly and recognizing them as extreme rarities as they truly are, we should try to live with faith and confidence in the Noble Truth without delay and attain the real happiness of Nibbana.

THE ROOT OF DEFILEMENT

      The human mind is naturally beclouded by delusion or ignorance (avijja), which prevents it from seeing the true nature of things as they are. Its ally, which always works in association with ignorance, is craving (tanha), the real root cause of suffering. These two latent impure forces in their original nature arise simply from our negligence or heedlessness, from lack of mindfulness in the impact between the eye and visible objects, ear and sounds, nose and odour, tongue and taste, body and touch, mind and mental objects.

      In other words, the three main root defilements, greed (lobha), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha) arise by turns as the case may be. Just as the rain leaks through the roof of a poorly thatched house, even so does passion penetrate an undeveloped mind. But on the contrary, just as the rain cannot penetrate a well-thatched house, even so passion cannot penetrate a well-developed mind.

      For instance, with respect to sight:

     1. When we see what we like to see, greed (lobha) arises;

     2. (a) When we see what we don't like to see, hatred (dosa) arises:

      (b) When we don't see what we like to see, the same hatred or aversion arises;

     3. (a) When we are unaware of what we like to see or of what we don't like to see, delusion (moha) or ignorance (avijja) arises;

     (b) But conversely, when we are aware of what we like to see or of what we don't like to see, intuitive knowledge (vijja) arises.

      Regarding ears, nose, tongue, body and mind, the defilements occur in the same manner.

      These impure mental states do always appear unnoticed in the absence of meditative mindfulness, through eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and mind. The defilements are quite certain to arise whenever conditions are favourable for seeing, hearing. etc. until and unless we curb and reject them by means of the practice of concentration (samatha) and insight meditation (vipassana).

      Concentration or tranquillity of mind can dispel craving (tanha), and insight meditation can eliminate ignorance (avijja). The power of concentration alone can control the restless mind and release it from the hindrances (nivarana) of evil thoughts, like sensual desire, ill-will, sloth and torpor, restlessness, worries and doubts, likewise the power of insight meditation causes one's mind to attain wisdom or enlightenment, whereby dispelling ignorance. The Buddha said in the Majjhima Nikaya, that one should apply oneself to the development of concentration and insight meditation in order to dispel craving and ignorance, the very roots of defilement in every human being, say in all persons who have not yet reached the highest stage of the Noble Ones (Arahanta Ariya). Truly indeed, so long as we are overwhelmed by these two origins of life-creative force, we cannot rightly see, hear, smell, taste, touch and think of the things as they really are and therefore, we fall victim to the control of defilement's all the time.

      Latent Tendencies

      The ordinary human mind is usually very fond of sensual pleasures and therefore always craves for sense enjoyments. The simple fact is that we think we are happy when we see what we like to see. But on seeing an object, we are rather ignorant of the fact that we are setting in motion evil tendencies or thoughts of greed, hatred or delusion.

      Let us now cite the case of eyesight. Apparently, there arises eye-consciousness when a visible object comes into contact with the eye. If the person who sees the object is pleased with what he has seen and enjoys it with sensuous desire, then there arises greed (lobha).

      In other words, with the pleasant sensation on the eyes, the latent tendency of craving or lust (raganusaya) takes root in his mind. As soon as the pleasant sensation has vanished away, there usually arises an unpleasant sensation or ill-feeling (dukkhavedana or domanassa) due to irrepressible craving that cannot be gratified.

      Again, when the seer is displeased with what he has seen and feels unhappy about it, then there arises anger or hatred (dosa). In other words, with the unpleasant sensation resulting from the seeing, the latent tendency of anger (patighanusaya) takes root in his mind. And as soon as the unpleasant sensation has vanished away, there usually arises a pleasant sensation or happy feeling (sukhavedana or somanassa) again due to the same unquenchable craving.

      Since, as a rule, an ordinary worldling does not know the true nature of the object he has seen, he is always deluded by ignorance (moha). And again, being unaware of the faculty of sight as it truly is, or the fact that he is dealing with what is nothing in essence, but merely a composite substance of mind and matter elements or phenomena, the latent tendency of ignorance (abijjanusaya) takes root in his mind. What is true for the eyesight is also applicable to other sense faculties through which arise the unwholesome defilements.

      All this shows how an ignorant worldling is always a victim of these basic unwholesome defilements in his inner realm. But he is totally unaware of the evil volitions instilling into his mind, nor does he realize that he is following the wrong path instead of the right one (majjhima-patipada).

      Three Grades of Defilement

      There are three grades of defilement, namely, (1) the grade of transgression or the gross degree of defilement (vi tikkama kilesa, (2) the grade of obsession or intermediary of defilement (pariyutthana kilesa) and (3) the grade of inherent tendency or the instinctive degree of defilement (anusaya kilesa). Just as there are three grades of defilement, so also, there are also three stages of knowledge of mental development in order to hinder and discard them.

      The first grade, that of transgression, can be suppressed and dispelled by moral conduct or virtue (sila); the second grade, that of obsession, by concentration (samadhi); the third grade, that of latent tendency, by wisdom (panna). With reference to the third grade, the latent tendencies are inherently concealed in each and every individual since many, many lives ago in the past in the round of Samsara, so long as the composite element of mind-matter phenomena is going on. The latent tendencies are, in fact, not to be seen with our naked eyes, yet they do exist or arise at the very moment when necessary conditions are complete, and then instantly pass away in their nature.

      Just as there appears a fire when the matchstick strikes against a matchbox, even so when one's senses are in contact with any outside object there assuredly arise defilements in the mind according to the degree of one's latent tendencies. As a result, in correspondence with the defilements of the mind, the physical body too becomes defiled in the same manner, thereby one can never be liberated from the round of sufferings of endless Samsara.

      Such being the case, the real remedy to extinguish the fires of passion or take out the root of defilements in one's self, is, in brief, to follow the noble advice of the Buddha, that is, to practise the insight meditation as taught to the householder Bahiya.

      The Story of Bahiya Daruciriya

      It is a very interesting story about a householder, called Bahiya, who received an extraordinary opportunity of attaining Arahatship on the spot as soon as the Buddha's Teaching had ended.

      Bahiya was born in a family of the clan of Bahiya, hence his name was so-called and he was engaged in trade, travelling on a ship. Seven times he sailed down the Indus and across the sea and returned safely home. On the eighth occasion, while on his way to Suvannabhumi, his ship was wrecked; he fortunately floated towards the shore on a plank, reaching the land near Supparaka. Having lost all his clothes, he put on a garment made of bark and went about with a bowl in his hand for alms in Supparaka.

      People, seeing his garment and impressed with his demeanour, paid him great honour. Though they offered costly robes and many other luxuries he refused them all and thus his fame increased. Because of his bark-garment, he was known as Daruciriya. In due course, he imagined that he had attained Arahatship. But a Devata (celestial being) reading his thoughts and wishing him to be on the right path, pointed out his error to him and advised him to seek the Buddha at Savatthi. By the power of the Devata, Bahiya reached Savatthi in one night, a distance of 120 leagues and was told that the Buddha was in the city begging for alms. Bahiya then followed Him there and begged to be taught something for his salvation. Twice he asked and twice the Buddha refused saying that it was not the hour for teaching. But Bahiya insisted saying that life was uncertain and so the Buddha or he might die at any time.

      The Buddha then taught him the proper method of mindfulness on all sense-experiences, namely, only on the sensory experiences and no more, i.e. 'Be aware or mindful of just the seen in what is seen (ditthe ditthamattam); just the heard in what is heard (sute sutamattam); just the touch or tangibility in what is touched (mute mutamattam) and just the thought in what is thought (vinnate vinnatamattam)".

      Even while Bahiya was listening he became an Arahanta, the Holiest Noble One and the Buddha left him. Shortly after Bahiya was gored to death by a cow with a calf. The Buddha seeing his body lying on the dung heap asked the monks to remove it and to have it burnt and to erect a Thupa (pagoda) over the remains. In the Samgha assembly the Buddha declared Bahiya to be the foremost among those who instantly comprehended the Noble Truth with a speedy super-knowledge (khippabhinna). The Buddha, knowing about this, uttered the paean of joy as follows: "There is no existence of earth, water, fire, air in Nibbana; nor shining of the stars, nor the sun, nor the moon, yet nor darkness, either."

      The Worthy One (Arahanta). after the realization of Nibbana by himself, has been emancipated from mind, matter and suffering.

     (Udana P. 86)

IGNORANCE (Avijja)

      The Pali word Avijja 'Ignorance' means lack of right knowledge or experience or knowing in a wrong way. Ignorance exists latently in one s mind whenever one is deluded, but it does manifest itself indelibly in the impact between sense organs and sense objects.

      The word Avijja is also explained in different kinds of contexts as follows:

     (A) Avijjasava (the outflow of ignorance) is so called because it is something like the intoxicating drink which is preserved for a long time.

     (B) Avijjogha (the flood of ignorance) is so called because it is like a strong flood which can sweep away and destroy all things.

     (C) Avijjayoga (the bound of ignorance) is so called because a conjoins beings with rounds of suffering.

     (D) Avijjanivarana (the hindrance of ignorance) is so called because it is latently inherent in beings (ordinary worldlings).

     (E) Avijjaisamyojana (the fetter of ignorance) is so called because it binds beings to the rounds of Samsaric lives.

      Buddhism puts its emphasis on the relation of cause and effect. The law of cause and effect is eternally in existence in the whole universe. It is quite obvious that an immutable law of nature proves that if there is a cause there must be an effect and conversely an effect cannot be produced without a cause. Actually nothing can happen in the world without foundation of other cause or effect.

      As soon as a cause has been done, due effect necessarily comes into being. In other words, when a cause has been performed at the first moment and passed away instantaneously at the next, then the effect immediately comes into being as a consequence, and again by itself passes away in a state of constant reflux. As such, there is nothing that can avoid the process of cause and effect, that is, a cause produces an effect and the effect arises just depending on the cause.

      We cannot say that 'Avijja' exists permanently as a substance anywhere in the body, nor can we say that there is no such phenomenon as ignorance or delusion, since we have actually experienced that it does exist from the view of ultimate truth. For instance, there is no fire in the match box or in the matches, but there does arise fire for sure when those two materials are struck against each other.

      In the same manner, there is no ignorance in the eye, nor in the object, but when the eye and the visible objects are in contact and if the necessary conditions (i.e. eye-base, object, light and attention) are present, as a result of cause-effect theory, there certainly arises the ignorance concomitant with the eye-consciousness which is latently associated with this very ignorance.

      It is called ignorance because one is ignorant of the true nature of Dhamma. Due to ignorance, one is not able to discern the aggregates. sense-bases and sense objects, elements, truths and faculties etc.

      Generally one observes a man, a woman, a dog or a book by seeing the outer and superficial forms or shapes which are not really in existence as an enlist or identity, but one hardly knows the real fact of aggregates, sense-bases etc. It is only due to ignorance which is truly the opposite of wisdom that the soul-belief arises.

      In the Suttanta Pitaka, it indicates that the state which deludes one not to understand the Four Noble Truths is called (Avijja) or ignorance. But in the higher philosophy of the Buddha's Teaching (Abhidhamma), besides these Four Noble Truths, the states in the past, in the future and both in the past and future and that of Dependent Origination are also counted as Avijja.

      Ignorance has the characteristics of not knowing (ananalakkhana); its function is to confuse (sammohanarasa), it is manifested as concealing (chadana paccupatthana) and its proximate cause is cankers (asava paccupatthana). Asavas are mental impurities which overwhelm the mind.

      Ignorance is, in fact, predominant in immoral actions (apunnabhisamkhara), while it is latent in moral actions (punnabhisamkhara). Hence both moral and immoral actions are regarded as caused by ignorance.

      Depending on ignorance, there arise volitional actions, as the Buddha said in the Links of Dependent Origination. For instance, one's volitional actions do arise when he performs either wholesome or unwholesome deeds by the condition of ignorance, i.e. without knowing the truth of suffering and its cause, but illusively thinking of them as if they were permanent, good and pleasant ones. In the same way not knowing the truth of cessation and the way to cessation, but imagining sacrifices, asceticism, austere practices as the true way to happiness some perform such wrong actions, with an expectation to attain a sort of happiness or the final bliss of peace.

      Such being the case, the ignorant worldlings can never understand and comprehend perfectly the thing as it truly is, so long as ignorance is intently dominant in his own being. Thus one performs different kinds of actions bodily, verbally or mentally which makes one go round in the process of endless existences (samsara) entailing various kinds of woeful anguish.

      Ignorance of the truth of suffering, its cause, its end and the way to its end is the chief cause that sets the wheel of life in motion. In other words, it is the not-knowing of things as they truly are or of oneself as one really is. It indeed clouds all right understanding. "Ignorance is the deep delusion wherein we so long are circling round", says the Buddha When ignorance is destroyed and turned into understanding all causalities are shattered as in the case of the Buddhas and Arahats. In the Itivuttaka Pali the Buddha says: "Those who have destroyed delusion and broken through the darkness of ignorance will no longer wander in the Samsara as causality exists no more of them."

      According to the Law of Dependent Origination (Paticca samuppada), when one, craving for a sort of happiness due to one's ignorance, performs meritorious actions, it is said to have done by way of wholesome action. That is, he is ignorant in doing his wholesome actions, such as alms-giving, observing precepts etc.; and thus he might go to one of the better abodes which is not a genuine final one. Again there arise immoral volitional actions depending on ignorance by way of unwholesomeness when one performs evil deeds, such as killing, stealing, drinking liquor etc., and as a result one will be born in the miserable planes.

      That is why in the wheel of Samsara, ignorance is the first phenomenon which starts the life cycles. But this ignorance should not be wholly regarded as causeless or rootless because there are four kinds of cankers as its roots or causes, namely, the canker of sensuality (kamasava), of existence (bhavasava), of wrong view (ditthasava) and of ignorance (avijjasava).

      Here the Buddha gives an exposition that the two defilements, ignorance and craving, are the real basic causes in relation to "the rounds of existences (Samsara) as: "The very origin of ignorance is not known. O Bhikkhus, before which there was no ignorance, and after which there came to be ignorance. And while it is said thus, O Bhikkhus, nevertheless, it is made known that ignorance has its specific condition; no first beginning of craving of becoming is made known.

      O Bhikkhus, before which there came to be craving for becoming. And while it is said that, O Bhikkhus, nevertheless, it is made known that craving for becoming has its specific condition."

      The Buddha also gives another exposition on how the rounds of rebirth takes place due to these two basic defilements as starting points, because they are the outstanding causes of Kamma that lead to happy and unhappy destinies respectively. Thus ignorance and craving have two different effects on the rounds of rebirths. Ignorance is the cause of Kamma leading down to unhappy and woeful states of lower existences (apaya), while craving is the cause of kamma leading to the prolonged process of rebirths in heaven.

      The Buddha said in the Samyuttanikaya: "Inconceivable the beginning of these rounds of rebirths (samsara); nor to be discovered is any first beginning of beings, who, obstructed by ignorance and ensnared by craving are hurrying and hastening through this cycle of births and deaths".

      Ignorance is the foremost phenomenon which gives rise to unprofitable and evil actions. A being who is fastened by ignorance sees the world of forms as a real and pleasant one. So long as man remains in the darkness of ignorance and lacks proper means to remove it, he will always continue to wander restlessly and live miserably.

      There are only two paths, one is the path of ignorance (Avijja) which is full of darkness; the other is the path of knowledge (Vijja) which is full of light. Only when ignorance is removed, can one discern the true face of (Vijja) knowledge. In other words, when true knowledge is achieved the illusory perception vanishes away. Ignorance can be dispelled only through knowledge. When one's illusion is discarded by understanding it cannot be perturbed by ignorance. If a man is overwhelmed by ignorance his knowledge is sluggish and as a result his process is retarded.

      Sorrow, grief, pain, lamentation and despair are inseparable from ignorance; in fact, they are found in one who is deluded. With the arising of cankers there is the arising of ignorance, also entailing sorrow, grief, pain etc. One who is ignorant inevitably craves after and, clings, and again with clinging as a condition there arises becoming. Therefore craving, clinging and becoming are consequently related to ignorance. With ignorance as a condition there are formations; without ignorance as a condition there are no formations; to understand this fact properly is the knowledge of comprehension.

      Thus the Buddha, immediately after His Enlightenment, proclaimed in His paean of joy that all the rafters had been broken (i.e. craving) and the ridgepoles had also been demolished (i.e. ignorance) and His mind had reached the unconditioned state and attained the exhaustion of passion (i.e. Nibbana).

      As a matter of fact, a mediator who sees the insight knowledge of rise and fall sees thus: - "With the arising of ignorance, there is the arising of the mental and material phenomena". Thus the more a Yogi proceeds further towards the higher, ignorance becomes lesser in his being.

      Finally, when the five Higher Fetters - craving for the fine material and immaterial being, conceit, agitation and ignorance are totally eradicated one reaches the supreme stage of the Arahatship which is the Ultimate Deliverance from suffering i.e. Nibbana.

CRAVING (TANHA)

      The word "Tanha" in Pali means craving or lust which is also rendered as "desire" · "attachment" "thirst" or "clinging" (Paritassati ti tanha). It is a mental state of insatiability or discontentment.

      The "Tanha" can be again divided into two different types: the weak desire may be called Tanha and the strong one Kamupadana or grasping of sense pleasures. To cite an instance here, tanhais like a thief who holds his hands out with an intention of stealing something and upadana is like that thief when he firmly grasps it. Besides, the root-cause of pains of the five aggregates which one suffers for one's own desire or search is called "esana tanha" and it is upadana or esita tanha" when worries or attachments are derived from one's watch and ward for one's property.

      Dependent on feeling, there arises craving which, like ignorance is the other most important factor in the links of the "Dependent Origination' said the Buddha in the Mahanidana Sutta of Digha Nikaya.

      Craving has the characteristic of being a cause (hetulakkhana) (that is, the cause of suffering): its function is an extreme delight(aghinandanarasa). It is manifested as insatiability (utittibhavapaccuppatthana). Its proximate cause is feeling (vedana padatthana).

      Classification of Craving

      Craving is threefold, namely, (1) craving for sensual pleasures (kamatanha), (2) craving for sensual pleasures associated with the view of eternalism (bhavatanha, i.e., enjoying pleasures thinking that they are imperishable, and (3) craving for sensual pleasures with the view of nihilism (vibhavatanha). i.e., enjoying pleasures thinking that every thing perishes after death. The third is the materialistic point of view maintained by some people of the present world. The two terms, the second and the third are usually rendered as craving for existence and non-existence respectively.

      Moreover, the craving can also be interpreted in three different ways: namely the craving for the Realms of Form (rupatanha), the craving for Formless Realms (arupatanha) and the craving for the cessation of existence with the view of nihilism (nirodhatanha).

      There are also six kinds of craving corresponding to the six sense objects of form, sound, smell, taste, touch, and mental object. They become twelve when they are counted as internal and external. They are reckoned as 36 when, viewed as past, present and future. When multiplied by the aforesaid three kinds of craving, they amount to 108 kinds altogether.

      Man's Insatiable Desire

      According to Buddhism, man born in the sensuous plane generally delights in sensual pleasures. He is very hard to please and still yearning and longing for more and more of something, newer and newer things through out his life. He passes his time only by leading a voluptuous life. Even when he gets the sensual pleasures that he loves, he can never be satisfied and contented and always remains insatiable as the common proverb implies: 'The more he gets, the more he wants;' or as a Burmese saying goes, The more salty water one drinks, the more one is thirsty'.

      Besides, man in his fundamental nature seeks for happiness either for his body or mind in some way or other. Being beclouded by ignorance and ensnared with craving he imagines that he is happy when his eyes see beauties, his ears hear sweet music, his nose smells sweet scents, his tongue tastes delicious food, his body touches pleasant tangible things and his mind thinks of pleasing mental objects.

      Sequence of Craving

      Man generally imagines that it is enjoyable for him to indulge in sensual pleasures, but that is not real happiness, it is lust, a temporary or momentary feeling in his imagination. He, under an illusion, usually imagines the enjoyment of sensual pleasures as actual happiness and what is unreal as real. In fact, one can never have genuine happiness from enjoying or indulging in sensual pleasures. Instead of obtaining real happiness, craving naturally leads to a sorrowful state and many other evils which bring upon him unprofitable consequences.

      In Dvayatunupassana Sutta of Sutta Nipata, the Buddha said that "whatever sort of suffering arises, it is conditioned by the factor of craving."

      The Buddha also said in the Anguttara and Digha Nikaya that the worldlings who are conjoined with attachment of craving have to go through the following process of dependent origination.

      Dependent on craving there arises search for what is wanted:

      Dependent on search, there arises gain:

      Dependent on gain, there arises decision:

      Dependent on decision, there arises desirous passion:

      Dependent on desirous passion, there arises grasping or firm hold as one's property;

      Dependent on grasping, there arises keeping it in safety:

      Dependent on keeping it in safety, there arises miserliness:

      Dependent on miserliness, there arises watch and ward (over one's own):

      Dependent on watch and ward, there arise many wicked and evil consequences, such as, carrying sticks, weapons, quarrelling, contradiction, resort, abuse, slandering, lies and so on.

      According to the sequence of the above process, one has invariably to encounter manifold sorrows and sufferings as long as one is unable to dispel this very craving. I have explained elsewhere that ignorance is the foremost state which begins the cycle of life and gives rise to many unprofitable and evil actions.

      Cause of Suffering

      Here again associated with ignorance is its ally, craving, the other great root-cause of suffering.

      The origin of the First Noble Truth of Suffering is nothing but this very cause, Craving (tanha) which is the Second Noble Truth. The Buddha taught in Dhammapada:

      "From craving springs grief, from craving springs fear, for him who is wholly free from craving, there is much less fear." (V.216)

      This craving is a powerful mental force latent in all, and it is the chief cause of most of the ills of life. It is this craving, gross or subtle, that leads to repeated births in Samsara and makes one cling to all forms of life. It is natural for an ordinary worldling to develop a craving for the pleasures of sense, for to overcome sense-desires is extremely difficult. Ordinarily the enjoyment of sensual pleasures is the highest or the only happiness to an average person. There is no doubt that such a feeling is a momentary happiness in the anticipation, gratification and recollection of fleeting material pleasures, but they are illusory and temporary. According to the Buddha non-attachment or non-passion (viraga) or transcending material pleasures is a greater bliss or happiness.

      Here the Buddha, the Enlightened One said; "Not getting what one desires is indeed suffering." Yet the man does not understand what his suffering really is and from where it emerges. He is all the time craving for something more and more never stopping his discontentment in enjoying sensual pleasures. Man's mind is thus never contented at ease and in peace but flitting and fleeing from one object to another with more expectations for better pleasurable ways of life. He always falls victim to the domain of sense desires. Thus his mind is most of the time full of attachments, clingings, anxieties, worries, sorrows, etc., since he is almost always hankering after sensual pleasure.

      The commentator of the Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga) mentioned in Pali:

     "Ditthibandanabaddha te, tanhasotena vuyhare,

     Tanhasotena vuyhanta, no te dukkha vuyhare.

     "The stream of craving bears them on,

     Caught in the meshes of their views:

     And as the stream thus bears them on,

      They are not free from suffering."

      Origins of Life

      Therefore ignorance and craving are indeed the two origins of life-creative forces or roots because of which one cannot rightly see, hear, smell, taste, touch and think of the things as they truly are. Whenever a person sees, hears, smells, tastes, touches, or thinks of anything or anyone based on ignorance and craving, he or she is always defiled with envy, jealousy, pride, greed, hatred and delusion, etc.

      For this reason, these two root causes are called 'extremes' (anta) because they are in the nature of contrary to tranquillity of mind (samatha) and intuitive insight (vipassana). So in order to expel these two powerful forces it is imperative for us to meditate on each and every thing we see, hear, smell and so on.

      Remedy for Craving

      Meditation in the Buddhist sense of the term means to know oneself as one really is. Through meditation on mindfulness or awareness alone can one be enlightened to know for oneself that the so-called he or she is nothing but a component aggregate of non-self, non-ego, nonentity. non—identity or impersonality. The meditation itself accomplishes the Middle Path that avoids the two extremes of self-indulgence in sensual pleasures (kamesu kamisukhallikanuyoga) and self mortification (attakilamathanuyoga).

      If one goes along the wrong way of these two extremes which makes one low, vulgar, worldly, unworthy, harmful and miserable, one is certainly far away from the Middle Path of the Buddha and in consequence one can never attain Ultimate Happiness of Nibbana. No sooner than the practitioner meditates, for instance, on the awareness or mindfulness of in-and-out breathing, he attains wisdom simultaneously since he has already restrained and controlled all his activities bodily, verbally and mentally: that is, he has fulfilled the perfection in the purification of virtue and mind.

      Thus the Noble Eightfold Path which consists of the following factors: Right Understanding, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Endeavour, Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration has been well accomplished.