Chapter VII

Anguttara Nikaya

        This Collection of Discourses, Anguttara Nikaya, containing 9557 short suttas is divided into eleven divisions known as nipatas. Each nipata is divided again into groups called vaggas which usually contain ten suttas. The discourses are arranged in progressive numerical order, each nipata containing suttas with items of dhamma, beginning with one item and moving up by units of one till there are eleven items of dhamma in each sutta of the last nipata. Hence the name Anguttara meaning 'increasing by one item'. The first nipata, Ekaka Nipata, provides in each sutta single items dhamma called the Ones; the second nipata, Duka Nipata, contains in each sutta two items of dhamma called the Twos, and the last nipata, Ekadasaka Nipata, is made up of suttas with eleven items of dhamma in each, called the Elevens.

        Anguttara Nikaya constitutes an important source book on Buddhist psychology and ethics, which provides an enumerated summary of all the essential features concerning the theory and practice of the Dhamma. A unique chapter entitled Etadagga Vagga of Ekaka Nipata enumerates the names of the foremost disciples amongst the bhikkhus, bhikkhunis, upasakas, upasikas, who had achieved pre-eminence in one sphere of attainment or meritorious activity, e.g. the Venerable Sariputta in Intuitive Wisdom and Knowledge (Panna); the Venerable Maha Moggallana in supernormal powers (Iddhi); Bhikkhuni Khema in Panna, Bhikkhuni Uppalavanna in Iddhi; the Upasaka Anathapindika and the Upasika Visakha in alms-giving (Dana); and so on.

(1) Ekaka Nipata Pali

        This group contains single items of dhamma which form the subject matter of discourses given by the Buddha at Savatthi to the numerous bhikkhus residing there. But some of the suttas were given by the Venerable Sariputta or the Venerable Ananda.

         (a) There is no one sight, sound, smell, taste and touch other than that of a woman which can captivate and distract the mind of a man; conversely there is no one sight, sound, smell, taste ,and touch other then that of a man which can captivate and distract the mind of a woman. (paras 1 to 10 )

        (b) There is no other single thing that brings about so much disadvantage and unhappiness as an undeveloped and uncultivated mind. A developed and cultivated mind brings about benefit and happiness. (paras 28 to 31)

        (c) No other single thing changes so quickly as the mind. The mind is intrinsically pure and bright; it is defiled by greed, hatred and ignorance. (paras 48, 49)

        (d) If a bhikkhu practises the meditation of loving-kindness, and develops it oven for the short duration of a fingersnap, he is regarded as following the advice of the Buddha, acting according to his instructions. Such a bhikkhu deserves to eat the alms-food offered by the people. (paras 53, 54)

        (e) There is only one person whose appearance in the world brings welfare and happiness to the many, brings benefit, welfare and happiness to devas and men. It is a Tathagata, a fully Enlightened Buddha.

        It is impossible for two Enlightened Buddhas to appear simultaneously in the same world system. (paras 170 to 174)

        (f) It is impossible for a person possessed of right views, i.e. a Sotapanna, to regard any conditioned formation as permanent, happiness, Self (nicca, sukha, atta). It is possible only for an uninstructed worldling to regard anything as permanent, happiness, Self. (paras 268 to 270)

        (g) If one thing is developed and frequently practised, the body is calmed, the mind is calmed, discursive thinking is stilled, ignorance is shed, knowledge arises, delusion of self is eliminated, evil tendencies are eradicated, the fetters are removed. That one thing is the mindful contemplation of the body. (paras 571 to 576)

(2) Duka Nipata Pali

        (a) There are two things to be borne in mind: not to be content with what has been achieved in the process of development, i.e. even with the attainment of jhanas or inner lights (which indicates a certain stage of Insight meditation), and to resolve to struggle unremittingly and strenuously until realization of the goal, the enlightenment. (para 5)

        (b) There are two potentialities of men, to do good or to do evil. It is possible to abandon evil; abandoning of evil brings benefit and happiness. It is also possible to cultivate the good. Cultivation of the good brings benefit and happiness too. (para 19)

        (c) Two things are conducive to attainment of liberation in two ways: Concentration Meditation and Insight Meditation. If concentration is developed, the mind becomes developed and passion fades away resulting in liberation of mind. If insight is developed, wisdom is developed and ignorance fades away resulting in liberation by knowledge. (para 32)

        (d) There are two persons one can never repay: mother and father. Even if one should live a hundred years during which one attends upon one's mother and father, heaps all one's attention, love and personal service on them, one can never repay them for having brought up, fed and guided one through this life.

        But if a person causes his parents who are non-believers to become established in the faith and to take refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Samghas; if he causes his parents who do not observe the precepts to become established in morality; if he causes his miserly parents to become generous so that they come to share their wealth with the poor and the needy; if he causes his ignorant parents to become established in the knowledge of the Four Truths, then such a person repays and more than repays his parents for what they have done for him. (paras 33, 34)

        (e) There are two kinds of happiness. The happiness of the home life and the happiness of homelessness; the happiness of homelessness is superior.

        The happiness of the senses and the happiness of renunciation; the happiness of renunciation is superior.

        Tainted happiness and untainted happiness;....... Carnal and non-carnal happiness;.., and ignoble and noble happiness;..... Bodily and mental happiness; mental happiness is superior. (paras 65 to 71)

(3) Tika Nipata Pali

        (a) The fool can be known by three things, by his conduct in deed, word and thought, so also the wise man can be known by three things, by his conduct in deed, word and thought. (para 3)

        (b) There are three places a sovereign king should not forget: his birth place, the place where he was crowned as king and the site of battle in which he conquered his enemies. There are three places a bhikkhu should not forget: the place of renunciation, the place where he achieved the knowledge of the Four Noble Truths and the place where he attained Arahatship. (para 12)

        (c) He who devotes himself earnestly to his business in the morning, in the daytime and in the evening, will prosper, and grow in wealth; the bhikkhu who devotes himself earnestly to development of concentration in the morning, in the daytime and in the evening will progress and gain advancement in his spiritual work. (para 19)

        (d) These three typos of persons are found in the world: One with a mind like an open sore; one with a mind like a flash of lightning; one with a mind like a diamond.

        One who is irascible and very irritable, displaying anger, hatred and sulkiness; such a one is said to be a person with a mind like an open sore.

        One who understands the Four Noble Truths correctly is said to have a mind like a flash of lightning. One who has destroyed the mind-intoxicating defilements and realized the liberation of' mind and the liberation by knowledge is said to have a mind like a diamond. (para 25)

        (e) There are these three kinds of individuals in the world: One who speaks words reeking with foul smell; one who speaks words of fragrance; and one who speaks words sweet as honey. (para 28)

        (f) There are three root causes for the origination of actions (kamma): Greed, hatred and ignorance. An action done in greed, hatred and ignorance will ripen wherever the individual is reborn; and wherever the action ripens, there the individual reaps the fruit (vipaka) of that action, be it in this life, in the next life or in future existences. (para 38)

        (g) He who prevents another from giving alms hinders and obstructs three persons. He causes obstruction to the meritorious act of the donor; he obstructs the recipient in getting his gift; he undermines and harms his own character. (para 58)

        (h) Three dangers from which a mother cannot shield her son nor the son his mother: Old age, disease and death. (para 63)

        (i) The well-known sutta, Kesamutti Sutta also known as Kalama Sutta, appears as the fifth sutta in the Mahavagga of the Tika Nipata. At Kesamutta, a small town in the Kingdom of Kosala, the Buddha thus exhorted the Kalamas, the inhabitants of the town: "Do not be led by reports or traditions, or hearsay. Do not be led by the authority of religious texts, nor by mere logic or inference, nor by considering appearances, nor by speculative opinion, nor by seeming possibilities, nor because one's own teacher has said so. O Kalamas, when you know for yourselves that certain things are wrong, unwholesome, bad, then give them up; when you know for yourselves that certain things are right, wholesome, good, then accept them, follow them." (para 66)

        (j) A bhikkhu devoted to the holy life should pay equal attention to three factors in turn, namely, concentration, energetic effort and equanimity, and not exclusively to one of these factors only. If he gives regular attention to each of them, his mind will become soft, pliant, malleable, lucid and well concentrated, ready to be directed to whatever mental states is realizable by supernormal knowledge. (para 103)

        (k) There are three rare persons in the world: a Tathagata who is perfectly Enlightened One is rare in the world: a person who can expound the Teaching and Discipline as taught by the Buddha is rare in this world; and a person who is grateful and thankful is rare in the world. (para 115)

        (l) Whether a Tathagata appears in the world or not, the fact remains as a firm and inevitable condition of existence that all conditioned formations are impermanent, that all conditioned formations are subject to suffering, that all things are devoid of self. (para 137)

(4) Catukka Nipata Pali

        (a) These four persons are found in the world: he who goes with the stream; he who goes against the stream; he who stands firm; he who has crossed over to the other shore and stands on dry land.

        The person who indulges in sense desires and commits wrong deeds is one who goes with the stream. He who does not indulge in sense desires or commit wrong deeds, but lives the pure, chaste life, struggling painfully and with difficulty to do so, is one who goes against the stream. He who stands firm is the person, who having destroyed the five lower fetters is reborn spontaneously in Brahma realm, whence he realises Nibbana without ever returning to the sensuous sphere. The one who has gone to the other shore standing on dry land is the person who has destroyed all the mental intoxicants, and who has realized, in this very life, by himself, the liberation of the mind and liberation by knowledge. (para 5)

        (b) There are four right efforts: (i) The energetic effort to prevent evil, unwholesome states of mind from arising; (ii) the energetic effort to get rid of evil, unwholesome states of mind that have already arisen; (iii) the energetic effort to arouse good, wholesome states of mind that have not yet arisen; (iv) the energetic effort to develop and bring to perfection the good and wholesome states of mind already arisen. (para 13)

        (c) As a Tathagata speaks, so he acts; as he acts, so he speaks. Therefore he is called a Tathagata. (para 23)

        (d) There are four highest kinds of faith: The Tathagata, the holiest and fully enlightened, is the highest among all living beings. Among all conditioned things, the Noble Path of Eight Constituents is the highest. Among all conditioned and unconditioned things, Nibbana is the highest, Amongst all groups of men, the Order of the Tathagata, the Samgha made up of the four pairs of noble men, the eight Ariyas, is the highest.

        For those who have faith in the highest, namely, the Buddha, the Path, the Nibbana and the Ariyas the highest resultant effects (result of action) will be theirs. (para 34)

        (e) There are four ways of dealing with questions:

        (i) Some should be given direct answers,

        (ii) others should be answered by way of analysing them,

         (iii) some questions should be answered by counter-questions,

        (iv) lastly, some questions should simply be put aside. (para 42)

        (f) There are four distortions (vipallasas) in perception, thought and view. To hold that there is permanence in the impermanence; to hold that there is happiness in suffering; to hold that there is atta where there is no atta; to hold that there is pleasantness (sukha) in that which is foul. (para 49)

        (g) When Nakulapita and Nakulamata express their wish to the Buddha to be in one another's sight as long as the present life lasts and in the future life as well, the Buddha advises them to try to have the same faith, the same virtue, the same generosity and the same wisdom; then they will have their wish fulfilled. (paras 55-56)

        (h) He who gives food gives four things to those who receive it. He gives them long life, beauty, happiness and strength. The donor himself will be endowed with long life, beauty, happiness and strength wherever he is born in the human or the deva world. (para 57)

        (i) There are four subjects not fit for speculative thought (Acinteyyani). They are:

        the specific qualities of a Buddha (Buddhavisayo);

        a person's jhana attainment;

        the results of Kamma; and

        the nature of the world (loka cinta).

        These imponderables are not to be pondered upon; which, if pondered upon; would lend one to mental distress and insanity. (para 77)

        (j) There are four things concerning which no one whether samana, brahmana, deva, Mara or anyone else in the world can give a guarantee:

        (i) That what is liable to decay should not decay;

        (ii) that what is liable to illness should not fall ill;

        (iii) that what is liable to die should not die; and

        (iv) that no resultant effects should come forth from those evil deeds done previously. (para 182)

        (k) There are four ways by which a person's character may be judged:

        His virtue can be known by a wise and intelligent person paying close attention after living together with him for a very long time. His integrity can be known by a wise and intelligent person by having dealings with him, paying close attention over a long period of time. His fortitude can be known by a wise and intelligent person by observing him with close attention in times of misfortune. His wisdom can be judged by a wise and intelligent person when conversing with him on various subjects over a long period of time. (para 192)

        (l) There are four things conducive to the growth of wisdom: associating with a good person; hearing the good Dhamma; maintaining a right attitude of mind and leading a life in accordance with the Dhamma. (para 248)

(5) Pancaka Nipata Pali

        (a) There are five strengths possessed by a person in training for higher knowledge: faith, shame (to do evil), moral dread, energy and insight-knowledge. He believes in the enlightenment of the Buddha; he feels ashamed of wrong conduct in deed, word and thought; he dreads anything evil and unwholesome; he arouses energy to abandon everything unwholesome and to acquire every thing that is wholesome; he perceives the phenomenon of constant rising and ceasing and is thus equipped with insight which will finally lead him to Nibbana, destruction of suffering. (para 2)

        (b) There are also other five strengths, namely, faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and insight-knowledge. The strength of faith is seen in the four characteristic qualities of a Stream-winner; the strength of energy is seen in the four Right Efforts; the strength of mindfulness is seen in the Four Methods of Steadfast Mindfulness and the strength of concentration is seen in the four jhanas; the strength of insight-knowledge is seen in the perception of the phenomenon of constant rising and ceasing, an insight which will finally lead to Nibbana. (para 14)

        (c) Impurities that defile gold are iron, tin, lead, silver, and other metals. Impurities that defile mind are sensuous desire, ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and worry, sceptical doubts. (pare 23)

        (d) A giver of alms surpasses a non-giver in five aspects, namely, in life-span, beauty, happiness, fame and power, whether both be reborn in the deva world or the human world. This difference in five aspects will persist till liberation is achieved. There is then no distinction between the liberation of one and the other or between one arahat and the other. (para 31)

        (e) There are five contemplations which ought to be practised by everyone, bhikkhus or layfolks, men and women:

        'I am certain to become old. I cannot avoid ageing.

         I am certain to become ill and diseased. I can not avoid illness.

         'I am certain to die. I cannot avoid death.

         'All things dear and beloved will not last. They will be subject to change and separation.

         'My kamma (past and present actions) is not only property, kamma is my only heritage, kamma is the only cause of my being, kamma is my only kin, my only protection. Whatever actions I do, good or bad, I shall become their heir.' (para 57)

        (f) Five standards which should be set up for teaching the Dhamma: the Dhamma should be taught in graduated discourses; the Dhamma should be given as a well-reasoned discourse; the Dhamma should be given out of compassion and sympathy; the Dhamma should not be given for the sake of worldly gain and advantage; the Dhamma should be taught without alluding to oneself or others. (para 159)

        (g) There are five ways of getting rid of a grudge: If a grudge arises towards any person, then one should cultivate loving-kindness, or compassion or equanimity to wards him. Or one should pay no attention to him and give no thought to him. Or one may apply the thought: his only property is his actions; whatever he does, good or bad, he will be heir to that. In these ways, all grudges that have arisen can be removed. (para 161)

        (h) Wrong occupations which should not be followed by a lay disciple: Trading in arms and weapons; trading in living beings; trading in meat; trading in intoxicants; trading in poison. (para 177)

(6) Chakka Nipata Pa1i

        (a) There are six things which are unsurpassed: The noblest things seen, the noblest things heard, the noblest gain, the noblest learning, the noblest service, and the noblest reflection. The sight of the Tathagata or the Tathagata's disciples is the noblest thing seen. The hearing, of the Dhamma from the Tathagata or his disciples is the noblest thing heard. Faith in the Tathagata or his disciples is the noblest gain. Learning supreme virtue (adhisila), supreme mind development (adhicitta), supreme wisdom (adhipapanna) is the noblest learning. Serving the Tathagata or his disciples is the noblest service. Reflecting on the virtues of the Tathagata or his disciples is the noblest reflection. (para 30)

        (b) There are six kinds of suffering in the world for one who indulges in sense-pleasures: poverty, indebtedness, owing interest, being demanded repaying, being pressed and harassed by creditors, imprisonment.

        Similarly in the Teaching of the Ariyas, a person is regarded to be poor and destitute who lacks faith in things that are meritorious, who has no shame and no scruples, no energy and no understanding of things that are good, and who conducts himself badly in deed, word and thoughts. (para 45)

        (c) There are six steps to gain liberation: Sense-control provides the basis for morality. Morality gives the foundation to Right Concentration. Right Concentration provides the basis for understanding of the true nature of physical and mental phenomenon. With understanding of the true nature of physical and mental phenomena comes disenchantment and non-attachment. Where there is disenchantment and non-attachment, there arises the knowledge and vision of liberation. (para 50)

        (d) There are six things to be known: Sense-desires, feelings, perceptions, moral intoxicants (asavas), kamma and dukkha should be known, their causal origin should be known, their diversity, their resulting effects, their cessation and the way leading to their cessation should be known.

        The way leading to the cessation of all these dhammas is the Noble Path of Eight Constituents. (para 63)

        (e) There are six things which appear very rarely in the world: Rare is the appearance in the world of a Perfectly Enlightened Buddha; rare is the appearance of one who teaches the Dhamma and Vinaya as proclaimed by the Buddha; rare it is to be reborn in the land of the Ariyas; rare it is to be in possession of unimpaired physical and mental faculties; rare it is to be free from dumbness and stupidity; rare it is to be endowed with the desire for doing good, wholesome things. (para 96)

        (f) There are six benefits in realizing the Sotapatti Fruition: (i) firm faith in the Dhamma (ii) impossibility of falling back; (iii) limit to suffering in the round of existences (only seven more existences); (iv) being endowed with supramundane knowledge which is not shared by the common worldling; (v) and (vi) clear Understanding of causes and phenomena arising therefrom. (pare 97)

(7) Sattaka Nipata Pali

        (a) There are seven factors for winning respect and esteem of fellow bhikkhus: having no desire for gain; not wanting to be shown reverence but indifferent to attention; being ashamed of doing evil; being fearful of doing evil; and having little want; and having the right view. (para 1 )

        (b) A bhikkhu becomes an eminent field for sowing seeds of merit, when he knows the text of the Teaching, knows the meaning of the Teaching, also knows himself, knows the proper limit for acceptance of offerings, knows the proper time for various activities, knows his audience, and knows the spiritual tendency of an individual. (para 68)

        (c) If a bhikkhu develops his mind in the four methods of Steadfast Mindfulness, the four Right Efforts, the four bases of Psychic Power, the five Faculties, the five Strengths, the Seven Factors of Enlightenment, the Noble Path of Eight Constituents, he will be freed of the mental intoxicants, without any attachment, whether he wishes or not for liberation. (para 71 )

        (d) Short is the life of man, just like the dew-drop on the tip of a blade of grass; a bubble appearing on the water when rain falls; a line drawn on water with a stick; a mountain stream; a lump of spittle on the tip of the tongue; a piece of meat thrown into an extremely hot iron pot; and a cow being led to be slaughtered, whenever she lifts a leg, she will be closer to slaughter, closer to death. (para 74)

        (e) Those teachings that lead to disenchantment, entire turning away from worldliness, non-attachment, cessation and calm, direct knowledge, enlightenment and Nibbana - such teachings may be taken as the true Dhamma and Discipline, as the Buddha's Teaching. (para 83)

(8) Atthaka Nipata Pali

        (a) There are eight benefits accruing from practice of meditation on loving-kindness: Whosoever practises meditation on loving-kindness enjoys sound sleep, wakes up fresh and well, is not disturbed by bad dreams, is regarded with esteem by men, is treated with respect by non-humans, is accorded protection by devas, is not hurt by fire, poison or weapons and is destined to reappear in the Brahma realm. (para 1 )

        (b) There are eight worldly conditions, the vicissitudes of life that keep the world turning round: gain, loss, fame, disrepute, praise, blame, happiness, suffering. (para 546)

        (c) There are eight strengths: The strength of a child lies in crying; of a woman in her anger; of a bandit in his arms; of a king in his sovereignty; of an unwise man in censure and reviling; of a wise man in careful consideration of pros and cons; of a man of knowledge in caution; and the strength of a bhikkhu lies in his fortitude and forbearance. (para 27)

        (d) Eight great reflections of the Venerable Anuruddha on the Dhamma: This Dhamma is for one with few wants, not for one who wants much. This Dhamma is for the contented, not for one hard to be satisfied. This Dhamma is for one who loves solitude, not for one who loves company. This Dhamma is for the energetic, not for the indolent. This Dhamma is for one of vigilant mindfulness, not for the heedless. This Dhamma is for one of concentrated mind, not for the distracted. This Dhamma is for the wise, not for the unintelligent. This Dhamma is for one who delights in Nibbana, not for one who rejoices in worldliness (conceit, craving and wrong view). (para 30)

        (e) There are eight types of speech by an Ariya:

        Having not seen, he says he has not seen; having not heard, he says he has not heard; having not sensed, he says he has not sensed; having not known, he says he has not known. Having seen, he says he has seen; having heard, says he has heard; having sensed, he says he has sensed and having known, he says he has known. (para 68)

(9) Navaka Nipata Pali

        (a) Nine practices not indulged in by Arahats: An Arahat does not intentionally take the life of a being; does not take, with the intention of stealing, what is not given; does not engage in sexual intercourse; does not speak what is not true knowing that it is not true; does not enjoy the pleasures of the senses; is not biased through favouritism, through hatred, through delusion or through fear. (para 7)

        (b) There are nine characteristics of a layman's residence which a bhikkhu should not visit or stay in:

        Where a bhikkhu is not greeted or shown signs of welcome, or offered a seat; where alms are kept hidden; where little is given away although much can be afforded; where inferior alms are offered although better alms are available; where the offering is made in a disrespectful manner; where the layman does not come near the bhikkhu to listen to the dhamma, and where little interest is shown in the exposition of the dhamma. (para 17)

        (c) There are nine ways in which grudge is formed: He has done me harm, he is doing me harm, he will do me harm; he has done harm to one dear to me, he is doing harm to one dear to me, he will do harm to one dear to me; he has done good to one disliked by me; ha is doing good to one disliked by me; he will do good to one disliked by me. (para 29)

        (d) There are nine things which should be eliminated in order to achieve realization of Arahatta Phala: Lust, ill will, ignorance, anger, grudge, ingratitude, envy, Jealousy, meanness. (para 62)

(10) Dasaka Nipata Pali

        (a) There are ten benefits of being established in sila, morality: One who is established in sila feels pleased; feeling pleased he feels glad; feeling glad, he is delightfully satisfied; being delightfully satisfied he becomes calm; when he is calm, he feels happiness; when he feels happiness, his mind becomes concentrated; with concentrated mind, he sees things as they really are; seeing things as they really are, he becomes disenchanted and dispassionate towards them; when there is no more passion or attachment, he achieves liberation of mind and liberation by knowledge. (para 1)

        (b) There are ten fetters: Personality belief (Sakkyaditthi), sceptical doubts, mistaking mere rites and ceremony as the true path, sense-desire, ill will, attachment to Rupa realm, attachment to Arupa realm, coneceit, restlessness, and ignorance. (para 12)

        (c) Just as a young man or a woman looks into the mirror to find out if there are any blemishes on the face, so also it is necessary for a bhikkhu to engage in occasional self-examination to see whether covetousness, ill will, sloth and torpor have arisen in him or not; whether worry and excitement, and doubts exist in him; whether he is free from anger and his mind is defiled or not by unwholesome thoughts; whether his body is at ease without restlessness; whether he is beset by laziness or not; and whether he has concentration of mind with clear comprehension. (para 51)

        (d) There are ten dhammas possessed by one who has become accomplished, an Arahat: Right View, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration, Right Knowledge, Right Liberation. (pare 112)

(11) Ekadasaka Nipata Pali

        (a) There are eleven kinds of destruction any one of which is likely to befall a bhikkhu who reviles the fellow bhikkhus of the community: Lack of progress in his efforts; declining from the stage already achieved; tainted and defiled understanding of the Dhamma; Being over come by his own conceit; unhappiness in leading the holy life; liability to commit offences against the disciplinary rules; likelihood of reverting to the household life; likelihood of being afflicted with an incurable disease; likelihood of becoming mentally deranged; dying with a confused mind and likelihood of being reborn in the Nether Worlds. (para 6)

        (b) There are eleven benefits derived from cultivation and development of loving-kindness, when frequently practised and firmly established: One sleeps soundly and wakes peacefully with no bad dreams; one is regarded with esteem by men; is treated with respect by non-humans; is protected by devas; is unharmed by fire, poison or weapons; his mind is easily concentrated; the features of his face are serene; he will die with a unconfused mind; if he does not attain to Arahatship, he will be reborn in the Brahma realm (para 15).

Chapter VIII

Khuddaka Nikaya

        Of the five Nikayas, Khuddaka Nikaya contains the largest number of treatises (as listed below) and the most numerous categories of dhamma. Although the word "Khuddaka" literally means "minor" or "small", the actual content of this collection can by no means be regarded as minor, including as it does the two major divisions of the Pitaka, namely, the Vinaya Pitaka and the Abhidhamma Pitaka according to one system of classification. The miscellaneous nature of this collection, containing not only the discourses by the Buddha but compilations of brief doctrinal notes mostly in verse, accounts of personal struggles and achievements by theras and theris also in verse, the birth stories, the history of the Buddha etc., may account for its title.

        The following is the list of treatises as approved by the Sixth International Buddhist Synod.

(1) Khuddakapatha Pali

        First of the treatises in this Nikaya, Khuddakapatha contains readings of mirror passages" most of which are also found in other parts of Tipitaka. it is a collection of nine short formulae and suttas used as a manual for novices under training, namely, (a) the three refuges (b) the Ten Precepts (c) the thirty two parts of the body (d) single Dhammas for novices in the form of a catechism (e) Mangala Sutta (f) Ratana Sutta (g) Tirokutta Sutta (h) Nidhikanda Sutta and (i) Metta Sutta.

        Taking refuge in the Three Gems, the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Samgha, by reciting the formula, "I take refuge in the Buddha, I take refuge in the Dhamma, I take refuge in the Samgha," is a conscious act of expression of complete faith in the Three Gems, not mere profession of superficial belief nor a rite of traditional piety. It implies (i) one's humility; (ii)acceptance of the Triple Gems as one's guiding principles and ideals; (iii) acceptance of discipleship and (iv) homage.

        In the section on 'Kumara panha, questions for young boys, the dhamma is tailored to suit the young intellect of novices:

        What is the One? — The Nutriment which sustains the life of beings.

        What are the Two? — Nama and rupa

        What are the Three? — Pleasant, Unpleasant, Neutral Vedanas.

        What are the Four? — The Four Noble Truths.

        What are the Five? — The five groups of grasping.

        What are the Six? — The six bases of senses.

        What are the Seven? — The seven factors of enlightenment.

        What are the Eight? — The Noble Path of Eight Constituents.

        What are the Nine? — The nine abodes or types of beings.

        What are the Ten? — The ten demeritorious courses of action.

        Maha Mingala Sutta, the discourse on the great blessings, is a famous sutta cherished highly in all Buddhist countries. It is a comprehensive summary of Buddhist ethics for the individual as well as for society, composed in elegant verses. The thirty eight blessings enumerated in the sutta as unfailing guides throughout one's life start with advice on avoidance of bad company and provide ideals and practices basic to all moral and spiritual progress, for the welfare and happiness of the individual, the family and the community. The final blessing is on the development of the mind which is unruffled by vagaries of fortune, unaffected by sorrow, cleansed of defilements and which thus gains liberation - the mind of an Arahat.

        The Ratana Sutta was delivered by the Buddha when Vesali was plagued by famine, disease etc. He had been requested by the Licchavi Princes to come from Rajagaha to Vesali. The sutta was delivered for the purpose of countering the plagues, by invocation of the truth of the special qualities of the Three Gems, the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Samgha.

        The Metta Sutta was taught to a group of bhikkhus who were troubled by non-human beings while sitting in meditation at the foot of secluded forest trees. The Buddha showed them how to develop loving-kindness to wards all beings, the practice which will not only protect them from harm but also will serve as a basis for insight through attainment of jhana.

        The Khuddakapatha which is a collection of these nine formulae and suttas appears to be arranged in such a way as to form a continuous theme demonstrating the practice of the holy life: how a person accepts the Buddha's Teaching by taking refuge in the Three Gems; then how he observes the Ten Precepts for moral purification. Next he takes up a meditation subject, the contemplation of thirty two constituents of the body, to develop non-attachment. He is shown next the virtues and merits of giving and how one handicaps oneself by not performing acts of merit. In the meanwhile he safeguards himself by reciting the mingala Sutta and provides protection to others by reciting the Ratana Sutta. Finally, he develops loving-kindness towards all beings, thereby keeping himself safe from harm; at the same time he achieves jhanic concentration which will eventually lead him to reach the goal of spiritual life, Nibbana, by means of knowledge of Insight and the Path.

(2) The Dhammapada Pali

        It is a book of the Tipitaka which is popular and well-known not only in Buddhist countries but also elsewhere. The Dhammapada is a collection of the Buddha's words or basic and essential principles of the Buddha's Teaching. It consists of 423 verses arranged according to topics in twenty six vaggas or chapters.

        Verse 183 gives the teachings of the Buddha in a nutshell: Abstain from all evil; Promote (develop) what is good and purify your mind. Each stanza is packed with the essence of Truth which illumines the path of a wayfarer. Many are the Dhammapada verses which find their way into the writings and everyday speech of the Buddhists. One can get much sustenance and encouragement from the Dhammapada not only for spiritual development but also for everyday living.

        The Dhammapada describes the path which a wayfarer should follow. It states (in verses 277,278 and 279) that all conditioned things are transitory and impermanent; that all conditioned things are subject to suffering; and that all things (dhammas) are insubstantial, incapable of being called one's own. When one sees the real nature of things with (Vipassana) insight, one becomes disillusioned with the charms and attractions of the Five Aggregates. Such disillusionment constitutes the path of purity (Nibbana).

        Verse 243 defines the highest form of impurity as ignorance (avijja) and states that the suffering in the world can be brought to an end only by the destruction of craving or hankering after sensual pleasures. Greed, ill will and ignorance are described as dangerous as fire and unless they are held under restraint, a happy life is impossible both now and thereafter.

        Avoiding the two extremes, namely, indulgence in a life of sensuous pleasures and, the practice of self-mortification, one must follow the Middle Path, the Noble Path of Eight Constituents to attain perfect Peace, Nibbana. Attainment to the lowest stage (Sotapatti Magga) on this Path shown by the Buddha is to be preferred even to the possession of the whole world (v. 178). The Dhammapada emphasizes that one makes or mars oneself, and no one else can help one to rid oneself of impurity. Even the Buddhas cannot render help; they can only show the way and guide; a man must strive for himself.

        The Dhammapada recommends a life of peace and non-violence and points out the eternal law that hatred does not cease by hatred, enmity is never overcome by enmity but only by kindness and love (V. 5). It advised to conquer anger by loving-kindness, evil by good, miserliness by generosity, and falsehood by truth.

        The Dhammapada contains gems of literary excellence, replete with appropriate similes and universal truths and is thus found appealing and edifying by readers all the world over. It serves as a digest of the essential principles and features of the Buddha Dhamma as well as of the wisdom of all the ages.

(3) Udana Pali

        An udana is an utterance mostly in matrical form inspired by a particularly intense emotion. This treatise is a ccllection of eighty joyful utterances made by the Buddha on unique occasions of sheer bliss; each udana in verse is accompanied by an account in prose of the circumstances that led to their being uttered.

        For example, in the first Bodhivagga Sutta are recorded the first words spoken aloud by the newly Enlightened Buddha in three stanzas beginning with the famous opening lines: "Yada have patubhavanti dhamma, Atapino jhayato brahmanassa."

        For seven days after his Enlightenment, the Buddha sat at the foot of the Bodhi tree feeling the bliss of liberation. At the end of seven days, he emerged from this (Phala Sampatti) sustained absorption in Fruition-mind, to deliberate upon the principle of Dependent Origination: When this is, that is (Imasmin sati, idam hoti); this having arisen, that arises (Imassuppada, idam uppajjati); when this is not, that is not (Imasmim asati, idam na hoti); this having ceased, that ceases (Imassa nirodha, idam nirujjhati).

        In the first watch of the night, when the principle of the origin of the whole mass of suffering was thoroughly grasped in a detailed manner in the order of arising, the Buddha uttered the first stanza of joy.

        "When the real nature of things becomes clear to the ardently meditating recluse, then all his doubts vanish, because he understands what that nature is as well as its cause."

        In the second watch of the night, his mind was occupied with the principle of Dependent Origination in the order of ceasing. When the manner of cessation of suffering was thoroughly understood, the Buddha was moved again to utter the second stanza of jubilation:

        "When the reel nature of things becomes clear to the ardently meditating recluse, then all his doubts vanish, because he perceives the cessation of causes."

        In the third watch of the night, the Buddha went over the detailed formula of the principle of Dependent Origination, Paticca Samuppada, in both the orders of arising and ceasing. Then having mastered the doctrine of Dependent Origination very thoroughly, the Buddha uttered the third stanza of solemn utterance:

        "When the real nature of things becomes clear to the ardently rneditating recluse, then like the sun that illumines the sky, he stands repelling the dark hosts of Mara."

        (4) Itivuttaka Pali

        The Fourth treatise contains 112 suttas divided into four nipatas with verses and prose mixed, one supplementing the other. Although the collection contains the inspired sayings of the Buddha as in Udana, each passage is preceded by the phrase 'Iti vuttam Bhagavata', 'thus was said by the Buddha,' and reads like a personal note book in which are recorded short pithy sayings of the Buddha.

        The division into nipatas instead of vaggas denotes that the collection is classified in ascending numerical order of the categories of the dhammas in the nipatas of the Anguttara. Thus in Ekaka Nipata are passages dealing with single items of the dhamma:

        "Bhikkhus, abandon craving; I guarantee attainment to the stage of an Anagami. if you abandon craving." In Duka Nipata, each passage deals with units of two items of the dhamma: There are two forms of Nibbana dhatu, namely, Sa-upadisesa Nibbana dhatu, with the five khandhas still remaining, and Anupadisesa Nibbana dhatu, without any khandha remaining.

        (5) Suttanipata Pali

        As well-known as Dhammapada, Sutta Nipata is also a work in verse with occasional introductions in prose. It is divided into five vaggas: (i) Uraga vagga of 12 suttas; (ii) Cula Vagga of 14 suttas; (iii) Maha Vagga of 12 suttas; (iv) Atthaka Vagga of 16 suttas and (v) Parayana Vagga of 16 questions.

        In the twelve suttas of the Uraga Vagga are found some important teachings of the Buddha which rnay be practised in the course of one's daily life:

        "True friends are rare to come by these days; a show of friendship very often hides some private ends. Man's mind is defiled by self-interest. So, becoming disillusioned, roam alone like a rhinoceros."

(Khaggavisana Sutta)        

        "Not by birth does one become an outcast, not by birth does one become a Brahmana;"

        "By one's action one becomes an outcast, by one's action one becomes a brahmana."

(Vasala Sutta)        

        "As a mother even with her life protects her only child, so let one cultivate immeasurable loving-kindness towards all living beings."

(Metta Sutta)        

        Parayana Vagga deals with sixteen questions asked by sixteen Brahmin youths while the Buddha is staying at Pasanaka Shrine in the country of Magadha. The Buddha gives his answers to each of the questions asked by the youths. Knowing the meaning of each question and of the answers given by the Buddha, if one practises the Dhamma as instructed in this sutta, one can surely reach the Other Shore, which is free from ageing and death.

        The Dhamma in this sutta is known as Parayana because it leads to the Other Shore, Nibbana.

(6) Vimana Vatthu Pali

        Vimana means mansion. Here it refers to celestial mansions gained by beings who have done acts of merit. In this text are eighty five verses grouped in seven vaggas; in the first four vaggas, celestial females give an account of what acts of merit they have done in previous existences as human being and how they are reborn in deva realm where magnificent mansions await their appearance. In the last three vaggas, the celestial males tell their stories.

        The Venerable Maha Moggallana who can visit the deva realm brings back these stories as told him by the deva concerned and recounts them to the Buddha who confirms the stories by supplying more background details to them. These discourses are given with a view to bring out the fact that the human world offers plenty of opportunities for performing meritorious acts. The other objective for such discourses is to refute the wrong views of those who believe that nothing exists after this life (the annihilationists) and those who maintain that there is no resultant effect to any action.

        Of the eighty five stories described, five stories concern those who have been reborn in deva world having developed themselves to the stage of Sotapanna in their previous existences; two stories on those who have made obeisance to the Buddha with clasped hands; one on those who had expressed words of jubilation at the ceremony of building a monastery for the Samgha; two stories on those who had observed the moral precepts; two stories on those who had observed the precepts and given alms; and the rest deal with those who have been reborn in the deva world as the wholesome result of giving alms only.

        The vivid accounts of the lives of the devas in various deva abodes serve to show clearly that the higher beings are not immortals, nor creators, but are also evolved, conditioned by the results of their previous meritorious deeds; that they too are subject to the laws of anicca, dukkha and anatta and have to strive themselves to achieve the deathless state of Nibbana.

(7) Peta Vatthu Pali

        "The stories of "petas" are graphic accounts of the miserable states of beings who have been reborn in unhappy existences as a consequence of their evil deeds. There are fifty one stories, divided into four vaggas, describing the life of misery of' the evil doers, in direct contrast to the magnificent life of the devas.

        Emphasis is again laid on the beneficial effects of giving; whereas envy, jealousy, miserliness, greed and wrong views are shown to be the causes for appearance in the unhappy state of petas. The chief suffering in this state is dire lack of food, clothing and dwelling for the condemned being. A certain and immediate release from such miseries can be given to the unfortunate being if his former relatives perform meritorious deeds and share the merit with him. In Tirokutapeta Vatthu, a detailed account is given on how King Bimbisara brings relief to his former relatives who are unfortunately suffering as petas by making generous offer of food, clothing and dwelling places to the Buddha and his company of bhikkhus and sharing the merit, thus accrued, to the petas who have been his kith and kin in previous lives.

(8) The Thera Gatha Pali and (9) The Theri Gatha Pali

        These two treatises form a compilation of delightful verses uttered by some two hundred and sixty four theras and seventy three theris through sheer exultation and joy that arise out of their religious devotion and inspiration. These inspiring verses gush forth from the hearts of bhikkhus and bhikkhunis after their attainment of Arahatship as an announcement of their achievement and also as statement of their effort which has led to their final enlightenment.

        It may be learnt from these jubilant verses how a trifling incident in life, a trivial circumstance can become the starting point of spiritual effort which culminates in supreme liberation. But for some of the theras, the call has come early to them to forsake the homelife and take to the life of a homeless recluse. Their struggle has been hard because of the inner fight between the forces of good and evil. They have had a good fight and they have won by dint of resolution and ardent determination. The crippling bonds of greed, hatred and ignorance have been broken asunder and they are freed. In sheer exultation, they utter forth these inspiring verses, proclaiming their freedom and victory. Some of these theras reach the sublime height of poetic beauty when they recount their solitary life in the quiet glades and groves of forest, the beauteous nature that form their surrounding, and the peace and calm that have facilitated their meditation.

        Although the verses in the Theri Gatha lack the poetic excellence and impassioned expression of love of solitude that characterise the verses in the Thera Gatha, they nevertheless reflect the great piety and unflinching resolution with which the theris have struggled to reach the goal. One distinguishing feature of the struggle of the theris is that many of them receive the final impetus to seek solace in holy life through emotional imbalance they have been subject to, for example, loss of the dear ones, as in the case of Patacari, or through intense personal suffering over the death of a beloved son as suffered by Kisa Gotami.

        Both the Thera Gatha and the Theri Gatha provide us with shining, inspiring models of excellence, so consoling and so uplifting, so human and true to life, leading us on to the path of the holy life, stimulating us when our spirit drops, our mind flags, and guiding us through internal conflicts and set-backs.

        These gathas may be enjoyed simply as beautiful poems with exquisite imagery and pleasing words or they may be contemplated on as inspiring messages with deep meaning to uplift the mind to the highest levels of spiritual attainment.

        "Rain gods! my abode has a roofing now for my comfortable living; it will shield me from the onset of wind and storm. Rain god! Pour down to thy heart's content; my mind is calm and unshakable, free from fetters. I dwell striving strenuously with untiring zeal. Rain god! Pour down to thy heart's content." (Verse 325)

        The bhikkhu has now his "abode" of the five khandhas well protected by 'the roofing and walls' of sense restraints and panna. He lives thus comfortably, well shielded from the rain and storm of lust, craving and attachments. Undisturbed by the pouring rain, and whirling wind of conceit, ignorance, hatred, he remains calm and composed, unpolluted. Although he lived thus in security and comfort of liberation and calm, he keeps alert and mindful, ever ready to cope with any emergency that may arise through lack of mindfulness.

(10) Jataka Pali

Birth-stories of the Buddha

        These are stories of the previous existences of Gotama Buddha, while he was as yet but a Bodhisatta. The Jataka is an extensive work in verses containing five hundred and forty seven stories or previous existences as recounted by the Buddha, (usually referred to in Burma as 550 stories). The treatise is divided into nipatas according to the number of verses concerning each story; the one verse stories are classified as Ekaka Nipata, the two verse stories come under Duka Nipata etc. It is the commentary to the verses which gives the complete birth-stories.

        In these birth-stories are embedded moral principles and practices which the Bodhisatta had observed for self-development and perfection to attain Buddhahood.

(11) Niddesa Pali.

        This division of Khuddaka Nikaya consists of two parts: Maha Niddesa, the major exposition which is the commentary on the fourth vagga (Atthaka) of the Sutta Nipata and Cula Niddesa, the minor exposition which is the commentary on the fifth vagga (Parayana) and on the Khaggavisana Sutta in the first vagga. Attributed to the Venerable Sariputta, these exegetical works contain much material on the Abhidhamma and constitute the earliest forms of commentaries, providing evidence of commentarial tradition many centuries before the Venerable Buddhaghosa appeared on the scene.

(12) Patisambhida Magga Pali.

         This treatise, entitled the Path of Analysis, is attributed to the Venerable Sariputta. Dealing with salient teachings of the Buddha analytically in the style of the Abhidhamma, it is divided into three main vaggas, namely, Maha Vagga, Yuganaddha Vagga and Panna Vagga. Each vagga consists of ten sub-groups, named kathas, such as Nana Kathas , Ditthi Katha etc.

        The treatment of each subject matter is very detailed and provides theoretical foundation for the practice of the Path.

(13) Apadana Pali

        It is a biographical work containing the life stories (past and present) of the Buddha and his Arahat disciples. It is divided into two divisions: the Therapadana giving the life stories of the Buddha, of forty one Paccekabuddhas and of five hundred and fifty nine Arahats from the Venerable Sariputta to the Venerable Ratthapala and Theripadana with the life stories of forty theri Arahats from Sumedha Theri to Pesala Theri.

        Apadana here means a biography or a life story of a particularly accomplished person, who has made a firm resolution to strive for the goal he desires, and who has ultimately achieved his goal, namely, Buddhahood for an Enlightened One, Arahatship for his disciples. Whereas the Thera Gatha and the Theri Gatha depict generally the triumphant moment of achievements of the theras and theris, the Apadana describes the up-hill work they have to undertake to reach the summit of their ambition. The Gathas and the Apadanas supplement one another to unfold the inspiring tales of hard struggles and final conquests.

(14) Buddhavamsa Pali

History of the Buddhas

        Buddhavamsa Pali gives a short historical account of Gotama Buddha and of the twenty four previous Buddhas who had prophesied his attainment of Buddhahood. It consists of twenty nine sections in verse.

        The first section gives an account of how the Venerable Sariputta asks the Buddha when it was that he first resolved to work for attainment of the Buddhahood and what paramis (virtues towards perfection) he had fulfilled to achieve his goal of Perfect Enlightenment. In the second section, the Buddha describes how as Sumedha, the hermit, being inspired by Dipankara Buddha, he makes the resolution for the attainment of Buddhahood, and how the Buddha Dipankara gives the hermit Sumedha his blessing, prophesying that Sumedha would become a Buddha by the name of Gotama after a lapse of four asankheyya and a hundred thousand kappas (world cycles).

        From then onwards, the Bodhisatta Sumedha keeps on practising the ten paramis namely, almas-giving, morality, renunciation, wisdom, perseverance, forbearance, truthfulness, determination, loving-kindness and equanimity. The Buddha relates how he fulfils these paramis, existence after existence, and how each of the twenty four Buddhas, who appeared after Dipankara Buddha at different intervals of world cycles, renewed the prophesy that he would become a Buddha by the name of Gotama.

        In sections three to twenty-seven are accounts of the twenty five Buddhas including Gotama Buddha, giving details about each of them with regard to birth, status, names of their parents, names of their wives and children, their life-span, their way of renunciation, duration of their efforts to attain Buddhahood, their teaching of the Dhammacakka Sutta in the Migadayavana, the names of their Chief Disciples and their chief lay disciples. Each section is closed with an account of where the Buddhas pass away and how their relics are distributed.

        In the twenty eighth section is given the names of three Buddhas, namely, Tanhankara, Medhankara and Saranankara who lived before Dipankara Buddha at different intervals of the same world cycle. The names of other Buddhas (to Gotama Buddha) are also enumerated together with the name of the kappas in which they have appeared. Finally there is the prophesy by the Buddha that Metteyya Buddha would arise after him in this world.

        The last section gives an account of how the Buddha's relics are distributed and where they are preserved.

(15) Cariya Pitaka

        This treatise contains thirty five stories of the Buddha's previous lives retold at the request of the Venerable Sariputta . Whereas the Jataka is concerned with the Buddha's previous existences from the time of Sumedha, the hermit, till he becomes Gotama Buddha, Cariya Pitaka deals only with thirty five of the existences of the Bodhisattas in this last world cycle. The Venerable Sariputta, a object in making the request is to bring out into bold relief the indomitable will, the supreme effort, the peerless sacrifice with which the Bodhisatta conducts himself in fulfilment of the ten paramis (virtues towards Perfection).

        The Bodhisatta has, throughout innumerable ages, fulfilled the ten paramis for countless number of times. Cariya Pitakas records such performances in thirty-five existences, selecting seven out of the ten paramis. and recounts how each parami is accomplished in each of these existences. Ten stories in the first vagga are concerned with accumulation of virtues in alms-giving, the second vagga has ten stories on the practice of morality and the last vagga mentions fifteen stories, five of them dealing with renunciation, one with firm determination, six with truthfulness, two with loving-kindness and one with equanimity.

(16) Netti and (17) Petakopadesa

        The two small works, Netti, made up of seven chapters, and Petakopadesa, made up of eight chapters, are different from the other books of the Tipitaka because they are exegetical and methodological in nature.

(18) Milindapanha Pali

        Milindapanha Pali is the last of the books which constitute Khuddaka Nikaya. It records the questions asked by King Milinda and the answers given by the Venerable Nagasena some five hundred years after the Parinibbana of the Buddha. King Milinda was Yonaka (Graeco-Bactrian) ruler of Sagala. He was very learned and highly skilled in the art of debating. The Venerable Nagasena, a fully accomplished Arahat, was on a visit to Sagala at the request of the Samgha.

        King Milinda, who wanted to have some points on the Dhamma clarified, asked the Venerable Nagasena abstruse questions concerning the nature of men, his survival after death, and other doctrinal aspects of the Dhamma. The Venerable Nagasena gave him satisfactory replies on each question asked. These erudite questions and answers on the Teaching of the Buddha are compiled into the book known as the Milindapanha Pali.