MINGUN SAYADAW

Chapter VI: Paramita (Perfections)

Edited and Translated by
U Ko Lay and U Tin Lwin
Yangon, Myanmar
1991

          The texts do not mention any type of gifts by fours. But Vinaya lists four kinds of requisites which may be offered as gifts. They are:

1. Gift of robe or robe-materials (Civara dana),
2. Gift of alms food (Pindapatadana),
3. Gift of dwelling places (Senasana dana),
4. Gift of madicinal materials (Bhesajja dana).

          Gifts may also be classified into four types depending on the purity of the donor and the receiver, viz:

1. dana where the donor has morality but the recipient has not.
2. dana where the recipient has morality but the donor has not,
3. dana where both the donor and the recipient are immoral, and
4. dana where both the recipient and the donor have morality.

Type of Dana in Groups of Fives

          The Kala dana sutta in the Sumana Vagga, Pancaka Nipata, Anguttara Nikaya mentions the following five types of gifts which are to be given at an appropriate time:

1. Gift made to a visitor,
2. Gift made to one starting on a journey,
3. Gift made to one who is ill,
4. Gift made at the time of scarcity and
5. Gift of newly harvested grains and crops made to those endowed with virtue.

          The fifth type has direct reference to farmers and cultivators, but it should be understood that it also includes the first fruits of labour of any one who offers them as dana before using them for oneself.

         Five kinds of Asappurisa dana

          There are five kinds of gifts made by men of no virtue

1. dana made without seeing carefully that the gift to be offered is properly prepared, fresh, wholesome and clean;
2. dana made without due rrerence or consideration;
3. dana made without offering it with one's own hands; (For example, the dana of King Payasi¹ who instead of presenting the gifts with his own hands had his attendant Uttara do so for him.)
4. dana made in the manner of discarding one's left-overs; and
5. dana made without the knowledge that the good deed done now will surely, bring good results in the future (Kammassakata Nana).

          Five kinds of sappurisa dana

          There are five kinds of gifts made by men of virtue:

          (1) dana made after seeing carefully that the gift to be offered is properly prepared, fresh, wholesome and clean;

          (2) dana made with due reverence with the mind firmly placed on the material for offering;

          (3) dana made with one's own hands; (Throughout the beginningless cycle of existences, the beginning of which we have no knowledge, there have been many existences in which one is not equipped with hands and feet. In this existence when one has the raze fortune of being equipped with complete limbs, one should avail oneself of this rare opportunity of offering gifts with one's own hands reflecting that one would work for liberation making use of the hands one is fortunate enough to be born with);

          (4) dana made with due care, and not as if one is discarding one's own leftovers; and

          (5) dana made with the knowledge that the good deed done now will surely bring good results in the future.

          These two groups of five kinds of gifts are described in the seventh sutta of the Tikanda Vagga, Pancaka Nipata, Anguttara Nikaya.)

          1. Payasi, a chieftain at Setavya in the kingdom of Kosala, was reborn in Catumaharajika as a result of his alms—giving in the human world. He related his past experiences to the visiting Maha Thera Gavampati. He said he had given alms without thorough preparation, not with his own hand, without due thought, as something discarded; hence his rebirth in that lowest of the six celestial planes. But Uttara, the young man who supervised his alms—giving at his request, was reborn in a higher abode — Tavatimsa — because he gave with thorough preparation with his own hand, with due thought, not as something discarded. The story teaches the right way of alms—giving.

          Another five kinds of gifts made by men of virtue (Sappurisa dana).

          (1) dana made with faith in the law of cause and effect (Saddha—dana);

          (2) dana made after seeing carefully that the gift to be offered is properly prepared fresh, wholesome and clean (Sakkacca—dana);

          (3) dana made at the right time, on the proper occasion (Kala-dana). (When it is the meal—time alms food is offered; when it is the Kathina season, robes are offered)

          (4) dana made with a view to rendering assistance to the recipient or to show kindness to him (Anuggaha dana); and

          (5) dana made without affecting in any way one's dignity and the dignity of others (Anupaghata-dana).

          All of these five kinds of gifts give rise to great wealth, riches and prosperity. In addition, saddha - dana results in fair, handsome appearance. As a result of Sakkacca - dana, one's followers and attendants are attentive and obedient. Resulting from Kala - dana are benefits that come at the right time and in abundance. As a result of Anuggahadana, one is well disposed to enjoy the fruits of one's good deeds and is able to do so in full, As a result of Anupaghata-dana, one's property is fully protected against the five destructive elements (water, fire, king, thieves and opponents. This classification of five kinds of dana comes in the eighth sutta of the above Text).

          The opposites of these five kinds of dana are not mentioned in the Texts; but it may be assumed that the five corresponding danas made by men of no virtues would be as follows:

1. dana made without believing in the law of cause and effect ( Asaddhiya - dana.), just to imitate others' dana or to escape from being censured or reviled. (Such danas will produce wealth and riches for the donor, but he will not be bestowed with fine appearance.)
2. dana made without seeing carefully that the gift to be offered is properly prepared, fresh, wholesome and clean (Asakacca dana). (Wealth and riches will accrue from such danas, but the donor will not receive obedience and discipline from his sub ordinates .)
3. dana made at inappropriate time (Akala-dana). (It will produce wealth but its beneficial results will not be in great abundance and will not come at the time needed.)
4. dana made perfunctorily ( Ananuggaha -dana), without intention of assisting or doing honour to the recipient. (One may reap riches and wealth out of such deeds, but he will not be disposed to enjoy his wealth or he may be denied the occasion to enjoy them.)
5. danamade in such a way that it will affect in some way one's dignity or the dignity of others (Upaghata- dana).( Wealth and riches may accrue from such danas but they will be subject to damage or destruction by the five enemies.)

          In view of the Kala-dana and Akala danatypes of offering mentioned above i.e. offerings made at appropriate or in appropriate times, is should be well noted that it is improper to make offerings, even with the best of intentions, of light to the Buddha during the day when there is light, or of food when it is after noon.

          Five kinds of Immoral gifts

          The Parivara (Vinaya Pitaka) mentions five kinds of giving which are commonly and conventionally called by people as acts of merit, but which are nothing but harmul, demeritorious forms of offering. They are:

1. Gift of intoxicants, majja-dana:
2. Holding of festivals, samajja - dana.
3. Provision of prostitutes for sexual enjoyment of those who wish to do so, Itthi-dana.
4. Dispatch of bulls into a herd of cows for mating (Usabha - dana) and
5. Drawing and offering of pornographic pictures (Cittakamma dana).

         The Buddha described these forms of offering as immoral, demeritorious gifts because they cannot be accompanied by good intentions, wholesome volitions. Some people think that by providing opium to an addicted person, who is nearing death because of the withdrawl of the drug, they are doing a meritorious deed of life- giving ( Jivita -dana). As a matter of fact, this does not constitute an act of merit, because it is unwholesome consciousness that motivates one to offer opium which is not suitable for consumption. The same consideration holds good in the case of offering of intoxicants.

          The Commentary to the Jataka mentions the inclusion of intoxicating drinks in the display of material to be given away by the Bodhisatta King Vessantara as a great offering, Maha - dana.

          Some people try to explain away this inclusion of intoxicants as materials for offering by the King Vessantara by saying that the king had no intention of providing liquor to the drunkards; that it is only the volition that determines the merits of an offering; that King Vessantara did not want any one to drink the intoxicants; there is no wrong intention involved. He merely wanted to avoid being criticised by those who would say that the king's Great - dana' has no offerings of intoxicants.

          (But such rationalisation is untenable .) Great persons like King Vessantara do not worry about criticism levelled at them by others, especially when the criticism is unjustified. The fact of the matter is that it is only in drinking that the guilt lies; using it as a lotion or for medicinal preparations in a proper manner is not demeritorious. We should take it, therefore, that it is for such purposes that the King Vessantara included intoxicants as materials for offering in his Great-dana.

         Five Kinds of 'Great Gifts', Maha-dana

          In the ninth Sutta of the fourth Vagga of the Atthaka Nipata, Anguttara Nikaya are given comprehensive expositions of the Five Precepts beginning with the words "Pancimani bhikkhave danani mahadanani," describing the Five Precepts as the Five Kinds of Great Gifts 'Maha-dana'. But it should not be wrongly understood that Sila is dana just because the Five Precepts are described as the Five Great danas in the Text mentioned above. The Buddha does not mean to say that Sila is not different from dana or the two are exactly the same. Sila is proper restraint of one's physical and verbal actions and dana is offering of a gift, and the two should not be taken as identical.

         When a virtuous person observes the precept of non- killing and abstains from taking life of other beings, that moral person is actually giving them the gift of harmlessness (Abhaya-dana). The same consideration applies to the remaining precepts. Thus when all the Five Precepts are well observed by a moral person, he is, by his restraint, offering all beings gifts of freedom from harm, from danger, from worries, from anxiety, etc. It is in this sense that the Buddha teaches here that observance of the Five precepts constitutes offering of the Five Great gifts, Maha-dana.

(End of Types of dana in Groups of Fives.)

Types of dana in groups of Sixes

          Just as the Texts do not mention any list of gifts in groups of Fours as such, so there is no direct mention of types of gifts in groups of six in the Texts. But the Atthasalini, the Commentary to Dhammasangani, the first volume of Abhidhamma, gives an exposition of six types of gifts in which the six sense-objects provide materials for offerings viz.: the gift of colour, of sound, of odour, of taste, of objects of touch, and of mind—objects.

Types of dana in groups of Sevens

          Similarly, there is no mention of types of dana in groups of sevens as such; but the seven kinds of Sanghika dana, described above under the heading 'Typos of gifts in pairs', sub-heading 'Gifts to the Samgha' may be taken to represent this type of dana.

Types of dana in groups of Eights

          The Buddha teaches the group of eight danas in the first Sutta of the Fourth Vagga, Atthaka Nipata, Anguttara Nikaya. (1) The Eight danas are:

1. dana made without delay, without hesitation, as soon as the recipient arrives;
2. dana made through fear of censure or of being reborn in the realms of misery and suffering;
3. dana made because the recipient had in the past given him gifts,
4. danamade with the intention that the recipient of the offering will make a return offering in future;
5. dana made with the thought that making a gift is a good deed;
6. dana made with the thought 'I am a householder who prepares and cooks food to eat; it would not be proper if I partake of the food without making offerings to those who are not allowed (by their disciplinary rules, i . e. Buddhist monks) to prepare and cook their own food?'
7. danamade with the thought 'The gift I am offering will bring me a good reputation which will spread far and wide, and
8. dana made with the idea that it will serve as an instrument to help one attain concentration when one fails to achieve it while practising Concentration and Insight Meditation.

          Of the eight kinds of dana, the last one is the best, the noblest. The reason is that this last danais unique, one which promotes joy and delight in one who is practising Concentration and Insight meditation, and renders great assistance to his endeavours in meditation. The first seven modes of giving do not arouse and encourage the mind in the work of Concentration and Insight Meditation and of them, the first and the fifth are superior ones (Panita). The seventh type is an inferior one (hina), while numbers 2, 3, 4, 6 are of medium status.

          The eight categories of dana may be divided into two groups: Punnavisaya - dana, dana which belongs to the sphere of meritorious giving and Lokavisaya-dana, dana which belongs to the sphere of worldly gifts. The first, the fifth and the eighth are Punnavisaya - danas and the remaining five belong to the Lokavisaya type.

          (2) Again, the third sutta in the dana Vagga of Atthaka Nipata of the Anguttara Nikaya provides another list of eight dana.

1. dana made out of affection,
2. dana made under unavoidable circumstances, made reluctantly and showing resentment,
3. dana made through bewilderment and foolishness without understanding the law of cause and effect,
4. dana made through fear of censure, through fear of rebirth in the realms of misery and suffering, through fear of harm that may be caused by the recipient,
5. danamade with the thought 'It has been the tradition of generations of my ancestors and I should carry on the tradition',
6. dana made with the objective of gaining rebirth in the Deva realms,
7. dana made with the hope of experiencing joy and delight with a pure mind, and
8. dana made with the idea that it will serve as an instrument to help one attain concentration when one fails to achieve it while practising Concentration and Insight Meditation.

          Of these eight categories of dana also, only the eighth kind is the noblest; the sixth and the seventh are Punnavisaya type of dana and are quite meritorious. The remaining five are of inferior type belonging to the Lokavisaya types.

          (3) Again, in the fifth sutta of the dana Vagga Atthaka Nipata, Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha had taught comprehensively on the subject of gaining rebirths as a result of giving alms, Danupapatti. According to the eight kinds of destination to be gained as future births, the danas are divided into eight categories:

1. Seeing the happy circumstance of rich and prosperous people in this life one makes the dana wishing for such wealth and comfortable life in the future, at the same time taking care to lead a life of morality. After death, his wish is fulfilled; he gains rebirth in the human world in happy, comfortable, wealthy circumstances.
2. Hearing that the Catumaharajika Devas are powerful beings leading a life of comfort and pleasures, one makes the dana wishing for such powerful, comfort able life full of pleasures in the Catumaharajika Deva world, at the same time taking care to lead a life of morality. After death, his wish is fulfilled; he is reborn in the Catumaharajika Deva world.
3. Hearing that the Tavatimsa Devas are ....... in the Tavatimsa Deva world.
4. Hearing that the Yama Devas are ....... in the Yama deva world.
5. Hearing that the Tusita Devas are ....... in the Tusita Deva world.
6. Hearing that the Nimmanarati Devas ....... in the Nimmanarati Devas world
7. Hearing that the Paranimmitavasavatti Devas are ....... in the Paranimmitavasavatti Deva world.
8. Hearing that the Brahmas live a long life, having beautiful appearance and enjoying happy, blissful lives, one makes the dana wishing to be reborn in the Brahma world and at the same time taking care to lead a life of morality. After death, one gains rebirth in the Brahma world as one has wished.

          It should not be concluded from the above statement that giving of alms alone is a sure guarantee for a happy life in the Brahma world. As stated under the eighth type, in the above two categories, it is only by making the mind soft and gentle through offering of alms and through development of concentration up to the Absorption stage, Jhana, by practising meditation on the four illimitables, namely, Loving Kindness (Metta), Compassion (Karuna), Sympathetic Joy (Mudita) and Equanimity (Upekkha) that one can gain rebirth in the Brahma world.

          Again in the seventh Sutta of the same dana Vagga is given the following list of eight danas given by a moral person (Sappurisa—dana)

1. Giving of gifts which have been made clean, pure and attractive;
2. Giving of gifts of choice materials and of excellent quality;
3. Giving of gifts at proper and appropriate times;
4. Giving of gifts which are suitable for and acceptable by the recipient;
5. Giving of gifts after making careful selection of the recipient and the objects to be offered (Viceyya - dana); excluding persons of immoral conduct, the selected recipients should be moral persons who follow the Teachings of the Buddha; as to the materials to be offered, when possessing things of both good and bad quality, better quality materials should be selected for making a gift;
6. Giving of gifts according to one's ability in a constant manner;
7. Giving of gifts with a pure, calm mind;
8. Giving of gifts and feeling glad after having done so

          A separate list of eight types of gifts made by persons of immoral conduct (Assappurisa-dana) is not given as such in the Texts, but one could surmise that they would be as follows:

1. Giving of gifts which are unclean, impure and unattractive?
2. Giving of gifts of inferior quality
3. Giving of gifts at improper and inappropriate times₇
4. Giving of gifts which are unsuitable for the recipient,
5. Giving of gifts without making careful selection of the recipient and the objects to be offered,
6. Giving of gifts only occasionally although one is capable of doing so in a constant manner,
7. Giving of gifts without calming the mind, and
8. Giving of gifts feeling remorse after having done so.

(End of Types of dana in Groups of Eight.)

TYPES OF DANAS BY GROUPS OF NINES

          The Vinaya Parivara Pali Text mentions the Nine types of giving which are taught by the Buddha as not valid as a deed of offering (Adhammika-dana). The Commentary on the Text explains these nine types of gifts as follows:

          (1) Causing the gift which has been intended by the donor for a certain group of the Samgha to be given to another group of the Samgha,

          (2) or to be given to a shrine,

          (3) or to be given to an individual,

          (4) Causing the gift which has been intended by the donor for a certain shrine to be given to another shrine,

          (5) or to be given to the Sangha

          (6) or to be given to an individual,

          (7) Causing the gift which has been intended by the donor for a certain individual to be given to another individual,

          (8) or to be given to the Sangha, and

          (9) or to be given to a shrine.

          Here the gift which has been intended by the donor means the four requisites of robes, food, dwelling place and medicines and other small items of necessities which the donor has already committed verbally to give to the Sangha, or a shrine, or an individual.

          The story or why the Buddha taught these nine types of Adhammika-dana is given in the Parajika kanda and Pacittiya Pali Texts of the Vinaya Pitaka. Once the Bhagava was residing at the Jetavana Monastery in Savatthi. Then a certain group of people decided to make offerings of food and robes to the Sangha. Accordingly they made necessary preparations and had the robes and food ready prepared for the offering. A group of immoral bhikkhus went to the would-be donors and forcibly urged them to make the offering of robes to them instead. Being thus forced to give away the robes to the immoral bhikkhus, the people had only food left to offer to the Sangha. Hearing of this, the modest bhikkhus denounced the immoral bhikkhus and reported what had happened to the Bhagava. It was then that the Bhagava laid down the rule: whoever bhikkhu should knowingly appropriate for himself the gift which has been declared to be intended for the Sangha, there is an offence of expiation involving forfeiture Nissaggiya Pacittiya Apatti.

          In the explication that accompanies the rule, the Buddha explains: If the gift already committed by word of mouth to be given to the Sangha is appropriated for oneself, there is the offence of expiation involving forfeiture (Nissaggiya Pacittiya Apatti); if it is caused to be given to the Sangha other than the intended one or to a shrine, there is an offence of Dukkata Apatti. Knowing the gift is intended for a certain shrine, if it is made to be given to another shrine or to the Samgha or to an individual, there is an offence of Dukkata Apatti. Knowing the gift is intended to be given to a certain individual, if it is caused to be given to another individual, or to the Sangha, or to a shrine, there is an offence of Dukkata Apatti.

          The above story is given to illustrate how one's well intentioned deed of merit could become vitiated through intervention and interference of undesirable intermediaries and how due to their intervention it could be turned into an adhammika-dana. The Buddha also explained the nine unrighteous acceptances (adhammika patiggaha) of the nine adhammika-dana and the nine righteous uses (adhammika paribhoga) of righteously offered requisites.

          It should be noted, however, that not every transfer of gifts from the recipient originally intended by the donor to another results in an adhammika-dana. The donor himself may change his original intention for some good reason or may be persuaded by a well-wisher to transfer the gift for acquiring more merit.

          An illustration of such transfer of gifts is found in the story of Maha Pajapati who had made a new robe intending it to be offered to the Buddha. The Buddha advised her to offer the robe to the Sangha instead. If it were an offence, the Buddha would not have given the advice. As a matter of fact, the Buddha knew that Maha Pajapati would gain much greater merit by offering the robe to the Sangha headed by the Buddha himself.

          In another instance, the Buddha persuaded King Pasenadi of Kosala to change his mind about permitting a monastery for ascetics of another faith to be built close by the Jetavana monastery. The king had been bribed by the ascetics for granting land to build their monastery. Foreseeing endless disputes that would later arise, the Buddha first sent the Venerable Ananda and other bhikkhu and later the two Chief Disciples, the Venerable Sariputta and the Venerable Maha Moggallana, to dissuade the king from taking the bribe and granting the land to the ascetics. The king gave some excuse to avoid seeing the great Disciples. Consequently the Buddha himself had to go to the king and told him the story of King Bharu, mentioned in the Duka Nipata, who in a similar situation had caused much suffering through taking bribes. Fully convinced of his wrong doing, King Passenadi made amends by withdrawing the grant of land and appropriating the building materials gathered on it by the ascetics. The king then had a monastery built with those materials on the very site and donated it to the Buddha.

          As stated above there is no offence when a donor changes his first intention for a good reason and makes the offer to another person. This has direct reference to one of the attributes of the Ariya Sangha. If a donor prepares gifts for bhikkhus who would be visiting him, and if in the meantime, bhikkhus who are well-established in the higher Dhammas and who are members of the Ariya Sangha come upon the scene, he may change his mind and offer the gifts to the newcomers to his better advantage. And they may also accept such gifts. They may also make use of the gifts so received. Being worthy of accepting such gifts originally intended for visitors is known as the Pahuneyya attribute of the Ariya Sangha.

End of Types of Dana in Groups of Nines.

Type of dana in Groups of Tens and Fourteens

          As in the case of dana in Groups of Fours, Sixes, or Sevens there is no direct 'mention of type of dana in groups of Tens in the Texts. But the Commentaries provide a list of ten material things which may be offered as dana.

          Likewise the Dakkhina Vibhanga Sutta gives a list of danas which come under the category of fourteen kinds of gifts by individuals (see item 19 of types of dana in groups of Twos).

End of Chapter on types of Dana.

5. WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS THAT STRENGTHEN THE BENEFICIAL RESULTS OF DANA?

6. WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS THAT WEAKEN THE BENEFICIAL RESULTS OF DANA?

         The Dana Sutta, the seventh discourse of the Devata Vagga, in the Chakka Nipata, Anguttara Nikaya, explains the elements that strengthen the beneficial results of dana and those that weaken them. At one time, the Bhagava was residing at the Jetavana Monastery in Savatthi. At that time, he saw by the exercise of supernormal psychic power of divine sight that a certain female follower of the Teaching by the name of Nandamata, was making an offering to the two Chief Disciples and the Sangha in the distant town of Velukandaki. He said to the bhikkhus, "Bhikkhus, Nandammta of Velukandaki is right now making a great offering to the Sangha headed by Venerables Sariputta and Moggallana. Her offering has the distinguished feature of the donor possessing three special qualities of volitional purity, namely, (a) feeling happy before the act of offering; (b) having a clear, pure mind while making the offering and (c) rejoicing after having made the offering, and of the recipients possessing three special qualities of mental purity, namely, (a) being free of attachment (raga) or practising to be liberated from it; (b) being free of ill-will (dosa) or practising to be liberated from it, (c) being free of bewilderment (moha) or practising to be liberated from it.

         "Bhikkhus, just as the water in the ocean is immeasurable, the benefit that will accrue from an offering distinguished by those six features is also immeasurable. As a matter of fact you speak of the water in the ocean as an immeasurably huge mass of water; likewise you say of such an offering which is unique with these six features as one that will bring an immeasurably huge accumulation of merit."

         According to this Pali Text, it may be seen that the three qualities possessed by the donor and three qualities possessed by the recipients form the elements that strengthen the beneficial results of Dana. It follows from it that, to the extent that the donor and the recipients are lacking in their respective qualities to that extent will the act of dana fall short of the full possible beneficial results.

         Again in the ninth birth story of Mahadhammapala, in the Dasaka Nipata of the Jataka it is mentioned that King Suddhodana was a brahmin in a past life. The great teacher of the Texila to whom he had entrusted his son for education asked him why members of his clan did not die young but lived to a ripe, old age.

         He replied in verse:

Pubbeva dana sumana bhavama

dadampi ve attamana bhavama

datvapi ve nanutappama paccha

tasma hi amham dahara na miyare.

"We feel very happy before we ever make an offering, We are delighted and satisfied while making the offering; And we rejoice after having made the the offering, never feeling remorseful. For these three reasons people never die young in our clan."

         From this story one can surmise that when an offering is made with fulfillment of these three volitional conditions, the benefit that accrues from it is enjoyment of long life in the present existence.

         Again in the Atthasalini and the Dhammapada Commentary are mentioned four conditions that bring beneficial results in the present life from an act of offering:.

(a) The materials to be offered as gifts have been acquired legitimately and equitably (Paccayanam dhammikata).

(b) They are given with faith and confidence and with fulfillment of three volitional conditions. (Cetana mahatta).

(c) The recipient is one of high attainment, an Arahat or an Anagamin (Vatthusampatti).

(d) The recipient has just arisen from 'the unconditioned state', Nirodhasamapatti (Gunatirekata).

         Offerings of this kind which bring beneficial results in the present life were made by people such as Punna, Kakavaliya and the flower girl Sumana who reaped great benefits from their danas which met these four conditions completely.

         In the Attahasalini, these four conditions for a gift are termed the four purities of gifts (Dakkhina visudhi); in the Dhammapada Commentary, they are called 'the Four accomplishments (Sampada).

         Again, there is a list of four kinds of purity (Dakkhina visuddhi) connected with an act of dana given in the Dakkhina Vibhanga Sutta of the Uparipannasa Pali. They are

(a) A gift made pure by the donor but not by the recipient. (Even if the recipient is of no moral virtue (dussila), if the donor is virtuous and makes an offering of what has been acquired legitimately and equitably, with pure and good volition before, during and after giving the dana and does it with full faith in the law of cause and effect, then the dana is pure because of the donor and will bring great benefit.)

(b) A gift made pure by the recipient but not by the donor. (Even if the donor is of no moral virtue, and makes an offering of what has been acquired illegitimately and inequitably, and does not have - pure, good volition before, during and after giving the dana, and without faith in the law of cause and effect, if the recipient is morally virtuous, then the dana is pure because of the recipient and will bring great benefits .)

(c) A gift not made pure either by the donor or the recipient. (When the donor of no moral virtue makes an offering of ill-gotten wealth to an immoral recipient with no pure, good volition before, during and after the act of offering and without faith in the law of cause and effect, the dana will bring no great beneficial result, just as a poor seed planted on poor soil will not grow properly to produce good crops.)

(d) A gift made pure both by the donor and the recipient. (When the donor of moral virtue makes an offering of what has been acquired legitimately and equitably, with pure and good volition before, during and after the act of offering to a morally virtuous recipient, the dana will bring great beneficial result, just as a good seed planted in good soil produces good crops.)

         The third type, of course, is not concerned with purity at all, but it is mentioned to include all the cases involved. To summarise all that we have considered, there are five elements that strengthen the beneficial results of dana:

(1) The donor observes the precepts and is of good moral conduct,

(2) The recipient is also morally virtuous,

(3) The materials offered have been acquired justly and rightly,

(4) The offering is made with happiness before, with pure satisfaction and delight during and with rejoicing after making the offer,

(5) The donor has complete faith in the law of cause and effect.

         These five elements should accompany the dana to be of greatest purity and benefit; when they are lacking when offerings are made, to that extent will the dana be deficient in beneficial results.

Some remarks on 'Saddha'

         It is important to understand clearly the complete meaning of the fifth element, namely, 'faith in the law of cause and effect'. Here, faith is the rendering into Myanma of the Pall word 'saddha'. Grammatically it would mean 'that which holds and keeps well'.

         Just as clear water in which all sediment and impurities have settled down to the bottom can hold the image of the moon, of the sun and keep it well, so also faith which is devoid of mental defilements can firmly hold the virtues and attributes of the Buddha (to serve as object for contemplation).

         To give another illustration, if man is not equipped with hands, he would not be able to help himself to jewels lying about him although he sees them. If he does not possess wealth he would not be able to provide himself with a variety of goods and materials.

         Without seeds, there would be no crops nor grains. Similarly, without faith we cannot acquire the jewels of generosity, morality and development of concentration and insight; (and there can be no enjoyment of the pleasures of the human or Deva world or the bliss of Nibbana). Hence the Buddha in his teaching compared faith to possessing hands, wealth or seeds.

         In the Milindapanna Pali and Atthasalini Commentary, faith is compared to the crown jewel, ruby, of a Universal Monarch, which has the property of instantly purifying and clearing the water in which it is put, no matter how dirty the water is. In a similar manner, faith dispels instantly all that is defiling the mind and make it pure and clear at once. If the mind is filled with faith, there is no room in it for defilements such as grief, worry etc.

         How difficult it is to keep the mind steadfastly contemplating on the attributes of the Buddha is within the experience of all good Buddhists. In other words, it is not a simple matter to keep the mind filled with only faith devoid of all defilements. But with practice, one can maintain a pure, clear mind through faith for short periods, until with steadfast effort, one can do so continuously for long periods.

         As regards having faith in the law of cause and effect, mentioned above, we should reflect thus: 'I will have spent a certain amount of my wealth by offering this dana but it will not be spent in vain. Through this act of dana, I will have developed volitions which is much more precious than the wealth I will have spent. My wealth is liable to be destroyed by five kinds of enemies, but this mental action of volition is indestructible and will follow me through rounds of existence till I attain Nibbana. Ability to keep the mind clear and pure in this manner is having faith in the law of cause, the mental action of volition.

         And considering the results that would accrue from the mental action we will come to a very clear, definite conclusion: 'Because of this mental action of volition, I will reap beneficial results throughout the rounds of existence, there is no doubt about it'. Reflecting thus and experiencing the exhilarating purity of the mind is having faith in the law of effect.

         Thus it is important to develop, through reflecting on the law of cause or the law of effect, faith which is conducive to purity of mind, for it is the fifth element that strengthens the beneficial results of Dana.

End of Chapter on Generosity.